FROM EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN BRITISH INDIA (1854-1904)
Unpub. Ph.d. Thesis, by Sureshchandra Shukla, 1957, University of Delhi,
Faculty of Education.
SOURCE: Personal copy of Sureshchandra Shukla
KEY: three apostrophes - like "' represent the boundaries of text
quoted as it appears in the thesis. Where the print was not clear and I
have extrapolated words, they are outside these three apostrophes.
Typed out by an admirer of Prof S.C. Shukla's work - Amman Madan,
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p. 328 "` CHAPTER IX
AGRICULTURAL, VETERINARY AND FORESTRY EDUCATION
Except towards the close of the Company's rule, the contact of the state with agriculture consisted primarily in the collection of revenues. For this purpose Boards of Revenue had been formed under the presidency and local governments. By about the forties, however, India had started being looked upon as a potential source of cotton and other agricultural raw materials and as a market for the textiles and manufactured goods of Britain. We have noticed earlier that this as well as the desire to improve land revenue yield by `improving the estate' had led to the development of a public works policy mainly in the way of building canals for irrigation and railways for transport. To promote the cultivation of cotton, services of American planters were utilised by the Bombay Government in 18391. In 1842, the Madras Government, too, attempted to introduce cotton as a staple crop in its 350 acre property at Saidapet.2 But with these exceptions direct agricultural activity of the state was negligible.
1 Royal Commission on Agriculture Report p.21
2 Report of the Madras Agriculture Committee 1889"'
p.239
"`This laissez-faire in the field of agriculture ruled not only throughout the period of the Company, but with the exception of Madras till much later. It stands out in some contrast to the policy at home where the Rothamstead Research Station had been started in 1845. As late as 1865 after the Orissa famine, the Government of India considered a proposal to contribute a Department of Agriculture only to reject it in order to be able to concentrate existing resources on irrigation for the time being1. Soon, however, this policy had to be altered. A series of disastrous famines started. The famine Commission of 1866 had recommended greater and more direct intervention on the part of the state in the field of agriculture. In 1867 the Manchester Cotton Supply Association, too, made a representation to the Secretary of State in favour of such a step. A secretariat of Revenue and Agriculture was set up under the Home Department of the Government of India in 1871. This secretariat took over many existing functions such as forest preservation (started earlier), collection of information regarding land revenue, agriculture etc. etc. The secretariat had, however, to be closed in 1879 on grounds of financial stringency. Within a couple of years, however, in pursuance of the recommendations of the Famine Commission of 1880, the Revenue and Agriculture Department of the Government of India was set up for good and so were similar departments in provinces in which they had not already existed locally. It becomes possible at this stage to speak of a government policy in regard to agriculture including agricultural education on an all-India scale.
Meanwhile, however, there was governmental activity in agriculture in some of the provinces notably in Madras.
------------------------------------------------
1 Griffiths,P.: British Impact on India p.415."'
p.330
"`Madras:
The question of doing something to improve the agriculture of the country
first engaged the attention of the Madras governmetn in 1854 and then again
in 1863. They felt "that in this presidency the Government are in
fact very much in the position of landlords and reaping the benefits of
the position cannot ignore its obligations viz. the advancement of agriculture".
The majority in line with the prevalent thought in government circles,
however, felt that "irrigation, communications, education, cheap justice
and careful assessment (of land revenue) were the primary means of agricultural
improvement". But they were persuaded by one of themselves Sir W.
Denison"'?"`that improved implements were important adjuncts.1
Government property at Saidapet was accordingly converted into a farm for
(a) the full trial and exhibition of agricultural implements received from
home in reference to requisition of earlier years.
(b) the trial of artificial manures under careful supervision.
(c) the exhibition to the people of an improved system of agriculture.
The farm also started a class of farm apprentices as well for the training
of farm overseers and of subordinates generally. This may be considered
to be the first attempt at giving systematic agricultural education on
record.2
About the same time cattle disease operations were started following
the prevalence of disease in Kurnool and on the hills. In 1866 an Act was
passed by the Government to compel ryots to take remedial measures. But
this remained unimplemented.3 In 1870, when the
-----------------------------------------------
1 Mr. Nicholson's preliminary note (App. to the Madras Agricultural Committe
Report
2 App. B.
3 Historical Note (App B to the Madras Agricultural Committee Report."'
No terminal parenthesis.
p 331
"`question of agricultural improvement was considered, the Board of Revenue proposed the establishment of a school for veterinary surgery. But apparently the need for the preservation of cattle wealth was not so acutely realised by Government so far and it dropped the idea as premature. This appears to have been taken up at some later date for in 1881 a lecturership in Veterinary surgery was in existence at the Madras College of Agriculture1
It was also decided to put the work of agricultural improvement and
education on a more definite basis and start four district farms as well.2
It was felt at the same time that the training of farm apprentices was
inadequate for the supterintendence of the proposed district farms and
more thorough and scientific training was necessary. This training was
expected to supply not only farm superintendents but also some who would
enter other government service or the service of landlords. Mr. Robertson
an agricultural officer of the Board of Revenue in 1873 proposed the foundation
of a regular college of agriculture at Saidepet. The Board of Revenue at
first supported the idea but later took up the stand that it was the improvement
of the practices of the mass of peasants rather than dissemination of principles
that was wanted. The Government, however, accepted the idea of a college
and Mr. Robertson submitted a large scheme on the assumption that there
would be great demand for agricultural training. Provision was made for
24 stipendiaries, for private students and for school masters. Young men
destined for private work as owners, occupiers or managers of estates and
candidates for various classes of government service were expected and
he proposed to attract men to the college by making its certificate a qualification
for certain public employments. The object of giving special courses
-----------------------------------------------
1 Historical note (App.B to the Madras Agricultural Committee Report)
2 App. B. (The purpose of these was to familiarise the Superintendent at
Saidapet with Indian agricultural practices."'
A: It is interesting to note that from the outset the target group was
the local elites. The ideological position of targetting the masses, mentioned
above, had been abandoned.
p.332
"`to schoolmasters was to enable them to teach agriculture and to prepare lads especially for the college so as to shorten the college course to two years by eliminating more elementary work. This special course was, however, a purely optional subject and consisted of a few lectures and partial training in practical agriculture to students of the Madras Government Normal School also located at Saidapet. The Government sanctioned the scheme even though the Director of Public Instruction felt that teaching Normal School men would not achieve the government objective of ultimately introducing agriculture in all rural schools because, as he pointed out, teachers from normal school would teach in higher urban schools. He agreed with another feature of the scheme sanctioned by the Government viz., that agriculture should enter the curriculum of District Normal Schools.
The College of Agriculture was founded in 1876. In 1879 another class of students was admitted but the number of stipends reduced from 15 to 5 and so students were not attracted in sufficient numbers. The efforts to induce zemindars to send their children did not succeed. Another class of students was admitted in 1882 and so the college lingered till its transfer to the Educational Department in 1884.
In 1877, Mr. Robertson again emphasised agricultural improvement apart from mere agricultural education. He produced a scheme of six divisional farms and a number of example district farms directly to influence the peasantry. The Board of Revenue felt, at this stage, that it was necessary to lay down a definite policy and requested the Government for an authoritative pronouncement. They themselves were in favour of scientific agricultural education in connection with example farming conducted under trained and qualified superintendence. A central school with a farm was the keystone of"'
p.333
"`such a scheme and it was impossible to expect "results" these all at once while it was yet in an experimental stage. They were, thus, in broad agreement with Mr. Robertson's scheme. Consideration of this proposal got deferred till 1880 due to famine exigencies. Meanwhile the Director of Public Instruction proposed agricultural classes with farms on mofussil schools patterned on the Bombay scheme (see below). In 1881 the Government sanctioned 3 agricultural classes at government schools at Bellary, Salem and Madura [sic.] to be followed (in 1883) by the setting up of farms in connection with them.
By 1881, therefore, when the Government of India directed the setting
of a department of agriculture, agricultural policy under the Board of
Revenue had already taken some interesting turns. Its work at the time
is described as "that of farm experimentation and research' including
a model farm (at Saidapet itself) till 1876, the selection and breeding
of all kinds of stock, the distribution of seeds, the manufacture, testing
and exhibition of new or improved implements, the making of tours of observation
and enquiry, the organisation of exhibitions, correspondence with the public
on agricultural matters, the conduct of agricultural education the advising
on all matters intended to carry out the expressed intention of Government
to further by positive action, the development of agriculture and the progress
of agricultural classes in sound practice and material prosperity".1
It had attempted the introduction of many new staples and succeeded to
some extent in respect of sugarcane.2 But some interesting transformations
of original intention had taken place. For one, the original idea of introducing
new implements, practices and staples had given way first to one of cautious
enquiry and preliminary
----------------------------------------------
1 Madras Agricultural Committee Report App.C.
2 Ibid App.B."'
p.334
`"experiment and then to agricultural education. The products of this education particularly at the college level were expected, perhaps, to apply their knowledge to their own or their employers' farms. But this did not happen and most students went into revenue or other government service or into school teaching. The other change was in the character of the education imparted. The idea of experimental farms as the centre of teaching at schools had given way to teaching as preliminary to experimental farms which meant in practice that what was taught was mere general principles and not improved practice. The tendency, thus, of government policy was no longer to attempt improvement in agricultural practice but to give education in general principles to youngmen who would go into the teaching and revenue services of the state. This as we shall see later helped the better to fulfil the objects of agricultural policy laid down by the newly founded Imperial Department of Revenue and Agriculture.
N.W.P. & Bengal:
In pursuance of the policy which led to the constitution of an imperial
secretariat in 1871 provincial departments of agricultre were also recommended
and Sir John Strachey one of the prime movers of the scheme, opened a Department
of Agriculture and Commerce under a temporary director of agriculture and
commerce in 1875, when he became the governor of N.W.P. The director was
Mr. (later Sir) E.C. Buck who in time came to wield great influence on
matters connected with agriculture and industry and related issues. Policy
here was somewhat more clearly formulated than at Madras. The first duties
that the department was entrusted with consisted of (1) reorganising the
system of village records and (2) the development of tobacco production1
at Ghazeepore for which Pusa in Bihar was later found more suitable.2 Fruit
---------------------------------------------------
1 Mr. Buck's Note K.W. Home Rev. & Agri(Agri.) Progs: Oct. 1879 167-176.
2 No. 167 above."'
p.335
"`orchards were attempted in Kumaon and promised to succeed in promoting
more widespread cultivation. Some attempts were made to introduce English
implements as also to put methods found successful by experiment into practice
in Court of Wards Farm.1 The department was, however, said to have carried
on more research on production methods than in any other province.2 The
department also carried out collection of trade statistics in order to
understand the most fruitful possibilities of transport development and
the promotion of trade and manufactures mainly tobacco and milk. It cannot
be said that the work of positive agricultural improvement was consciously
approved as policy although specific activities such as the work at the
Saharanpur Botanical Garden which in an earlier period had provided experience
with the help of which India tea enterprise could successfully compete
with China3 must be appreciated.
The utility of the department's work relating to collection of facts
regarding agriculture trade and to the systematization of village records
was hig lighted when the Bengal Governor criticised it as superfluous.
He considered it more useful to strengthen the judiciary as in Bengal,
rather than spend money on collecting statistics. The N.W.P. Government,
in reply, pointed out that in Bengal where the government was concerned
with agriculture through landlords and civil courts alone, its ignorance
of its domain led to callous naction as in the Orissa famine and later
to costly importation of food due to panic.4 The Government of India endorsed
this view and suggested that the Government of Bengal take some action
in the direction of promoting agricultural instruction and improvement
in such a way "as may seem most suited to the
------------------------------------------------ 1 (Administration Report
of the Deptt. of Agri. & Commerce; N.W.P. & Oudh 1877-78) - Home
Rev. & Agri. (Agri.) Progs: Oct. 1879 No.167.
2 Report of Royal Commission on Agriculture.
3 Buck's Note K.W.
4 Home Rev. & Agri.(Agri.) Progs: Oct. 1878, No.172"'
p. 336
`"circumstances of the province", by, if necessary, reducing
some part of the expense on "strengthening and multiplying civil courts
in Bengal". It also stressed economic enquiry regarding land, agriculture,
manufacture, internal and import and export trade.
It may be added that 7 model farms had been started in Bengal in 1871 but that these perished during famine troubles in 1874.1 The question of agricultural education had also been referred by the government of Bengal to the Senate of the Calcutta University but was decided in the negative.2
It may also be noted that neither in Bengal nor in the N.W.P. had this
yet led to any agricultural education except that by 1882 some agricultural
training was being given on the Cawnpore model farm to a few Eurasian and
Indian boys.3"'
...
`"-----------------------------------------------------
1 Report of the Royal Comm. on Agriculture.
2 Home (Edn.) Progs: 27th Feb. 1869 Nos. 53-54.
3 Rev. & Agri (Agri.) Progs: July, 1882 40-47."'
p. 357
...
`"Famine Commission of 1880:
All this scattered activity was indicative of a consciousness in government
circles that the state could not continue completely to ignore the agriculture
of the country. This was a result partly of the fact that repeated famines
were pointing to the existence of something seriously wrong with India's
agriculture - its methods or organisation particularly land revenue system.
Famines were a continuous threat to the stability, let alone increase,
of land revenue. They were a threat to public order and thus to the stability
of the state. Ways had, therefore, to be devised to find out the facts
about agriculture, to support it by means of public works, to devise the
most rational levels of land revenue so as to stabilise and maximise the
yield, to improve agricultural practices, again, contributing to higher
revenue yield, to introduce new and profitable staples, in many cases useful
raw materials for British industry, where possible, and finally, to give
such agricultural education as may contribute to the ends in view. Matters
---------------------------------------------------
1 Home (Edn.) Progs : March, 1879, 27-30.
2 Home (Edn.) Progs : Aug., 1879, 33-35.
3 Rev. & Agri.(Agri. & Horti) Progs: Aug., 1881 6-8."'
p. 338
`"were, however, not sufficiently clarified to indicate exactly what was wanted. The enquiry conducted by the famine Commission of 1880 laid the basis for taking decisions.
The Commission made recommendations under the following heads which
are indicative of its line of approach to the problem:
I. General Administration.
II. Registration of vital statistics.
III. Relations of landlord and tenant - legislation in C.P. and Bengal.
IV. Land Revenue - moderation in reassessment and lenience in collection.
V. Indebtedness remedial legislation.
VI. Loan for agricultural improvements.
VII. Public Works Policy.
VIII. Irrigation Works and
IX. Railways.
It required that the following tasks be undertaken:1
A. Organisation of provincial machinery (land records) for collecting information.
B. Scientific investigation by experts imperially connected.
C. Collecting and disseminating information (the `facts' and `statistics'
of the Secretary of State).
D. The utilization of information obtained under A,B,C from analysis of
each agricultural tract in India.
E. The suggestion and ascertainment of defects discovered by analysis D.
F. The application of remedies provided by E.
G. The cooperation of the native community in both E & F.
H. The education of the native community with the object of qualifying
them for C.
Activities D to H were not carried out at all till the time of writing
of the note. But in this note, Sir E.Buck takes up the position
----------------------------------------------------
1 Sir E.Bucks's Note - Rev. & Agri. (Agri.) Progs: Nov. 1893 No.1"'
p.338
`"that not merely the revenue but the proposed agricultural activities
of the department, too, improved the financial position of this government.
Early activity of the Imperial Department of Revenue and Agriculture:
Apart from other outcomes, the main result of the Commission's recommendation
was the setting of of an Imperial Department of Revenue and Agriculture.
It was charged, in short, with the duties of (a) agricultural enquiry (b)
agricultural improvement and when required (c) famine relief. Priority
among these tanks was given to the first. Although the Famine Commission
had distinctly envisaged positive measures of agricultural improvement,1
the Government of India from the very beginning considered it the primary
duty of the new department to rationalise the organisation for revenue
collection and to increase its efficiency, to ascertain facts about agricultural
production, and thus to help in fixing optimum levels of revenue, giving
remissions and making reductions where necessary and increasing assessments
whereever possible. Before the department had come into existence, costly
periodical surveys used to be undertaken to assess land revenue. Not only
were the organisations expensive, the experience gathered by them was invariably
lost to the government and the information gathered pertained to a particular
point in time and was not continuously being brought up-to-date. What was
required was, therefore, a continuos and adequate system of village records.
The policy determined upon was, thus, to discontinue periodical surveys
and to graft on to the existing village and revenue administration certain
tasks of collecting information in accordance with the guidance given by
the provincial departments of revenue and agriculture. The Imperial department
was
-----------------------------------------------------
1 Government of India Resln. dated 8th December, 1881."'
p.340
`"to assist the provinces in precisely this, which had as an experimental
measure in the N.W.P. succeeded well enough. And this is precisely what
the newly set up department proposed to do. In the opening reorientation
setting up the department and almost continuously afterwards the Government
of India urged upon the provincial governments that "we must look
to the people themselves for any wide or solid improvement in the agricultural
system".2 Further, "What the Revenue and Agricultural Department
did, when ordered to give effect to the Famine Commission's scheme, was
to encourage Local Governments to utilise all existing instututions especially
those connected with the settlement, creating as little as possible, and
using as much as possible of what was at hand, for carrying out the measure
referred to ... It especially endeavoured to induce the Local Governments
by a gradual process (to effect) the transmutation of larger and more costly
settlement establishments, continually being launched on periodical and
vexatious campaigns, into smaller and cheaper settlement departments with
permanent and unobtrusive duties. The word "Agricultural" was,
except in the Punjab, applied (perhaps unfortunately) to the permanent
departments in consequence of the form taken by the recommendations of
the Famine COmmission, for it must not be forgotten that the Government
of India was practically forced by the Famine Commission to propose to
the
------------------------------------------------
1 Incidentally it can now be understood why a permanently settled province
like Bengal did not feel the need for such an organisation and, therefore,
deprecated the activity of the N.W.P. agricultural department. This view,
however, was short sighted as pointed out by Sir John Strachey, for even
a permanently settled province had to deal with famines and even there
it was in the ultimately interests of the state that the actual producer
was not absolutely pauperised and was even helped to do his job better
by the state taking measures for agricultural improvement.
2 Sir E.Buck's Note on Agricultural Department dated 10th Jan., 1886 para
4. Home (Edn.) Progs: Oct 1897 - 14-38."'
p.341
`"the Secretary of State, the establishment of Agricultural Departments
and that the Secretary of State himself added to the pressure brought to
bear by the Famine Commission on the Government of India. What then happened
was that the small permanenet settlement establishments which with the
general concurrence of the Provinces were to be allowed to take the place
of large and temporary establishments had to be disguised under the name
"Agricultureal Departments". This I say was perhaps unfortunate
because the public and even a great part of the officials of the country,
took into their heads, from which it is very difficult to drive it, the
notion that these departments were mainly created for the purpose of sending
civilians from Cirencester to carry out agricultural experiments on Government
Farms. No one dreaded this very result more than the Government of India
which in its very first Resolution of 1881, as it has ever since, warned
Local Governments to restrict their officers as far as possible to the
more serious duty of maintaining records and classifying the agricultural
circumstances of the country and to require them to spend as little as
possible on positive agricultural reform. (In evidence of this I append
to this note some paragraphs from a Resolution recently issued on the conduct
of experimental farms):"'...
p. 342
`"And this policy certainly paid dividends. When the Finance Commission of 1889 tried to assess the utility of the departments on the basis of direct financial gain, this one stood the test. The entire outlay on the new departments was 4 lacs in addition to what would have been spent even if the departments had not been created. On the other hand the savings effected by the reforms in village records were expected to continue for the next 30 years.1 Land revenue continued to grow satisfactorily over the eighties and was expected to show an even greater increase as under the new settlements currently being concluded rates were to be enhanced considering that railways and irrigation should have brought additional prosperity to agriculture.2
In pursuance of the policy laid down by the Famine Commission the departments
were charged with certain other economic duties as well. Thus, in 1982
at a conference convened by it, the principles of future cadastral surveys
were laid down which formed the basis of agricultural statistics. The 1883
Conference prepared a scheme for registration of inland trade statistics
and for the publication of agricultural and trade returns. By 1897 the
following sciences or fields of investigation had so far been developed3
under imperial direction:
(1) Geography represented by the Survey Department
(2) Geology represented by the Geological Department.
(3) Meteorology (including solar magnetic and astronomical observations)
represented by the Meteorological Department.
(4) Botany represented by the Botanical Survey of India.
--------------------------------------------------
1 Letter No.33(Revenue) from Secretary of State to Government of India
dated 21st March, 1889 (Rev. & Agri.(Rev.) Progs: May 1890 13-15).
2 Extract from Financial "' one word not legible`"for 1888-89
- Rev.& Agri.(Rev.) Progs: 1890 13-15.
3 "' Not legible.
p. 343
`"(5) Economic Products by the Department under the Reporter.
(6) Veterinary Science by the Civil Veterinary Department.
(7) Bacteriology by the Bacteriological Branch of the Veterinary Department.
(8) Agricultural Science by the Department of Agricultural Chemistry.
(9) Entomology by the National Museum at Calcutta.
(10) Statistics by the Statistics Department.
(11) Forestry by the Inspector-General of Forests."'
...
`"In 1887 the Reporter of Economic Products was appointed to prepare
a catalogue raiso"'last 4 letters not legible`" of the products.
Veterinary sciences, which shall study in a little greater detail below
expanded from its purely military confines to civilian departments. The
forestry"'
p. 344
`"Department created as early as 1864 expanded. A bacteriological laboratory was set up at Poona and later shifted to a colder site in the Himalayas. Entomology as applied to agriculture being an investigation into the causes of all plant diseases was taken up by the Indian Museum in 1882.
Besides these activities of the Government of India the following provincial
scientific enquiries also got started:-1
1) Reclamation of saline lands - a system which was claimed to be capable
of application by the average agriculturist had been evolved at a conference
of officers in 1877.
2) European dairy methods were tried out successfully at Bombay and the
expert was later transferred to N.W.P. where he carried out his work at
the Aligarh Farm.
3) Reclamation of ravine was initiated at the instance of the N.W.P. Department
of Agriculture in 1885.
4) An investigation into the results of applying canal waters to culturable
land led to an improvement of land revenue to the tune of Rs.30 lakhs a
year.
All this activity may or may not have had much influence on the techniques
or yield of Indian agriculture as a whole. Apparently it did not. But it
is certainly indicative of a major change that had come over the administration's
outlook from 1880's onwards. It made for a more comprehensive conception
of the economic activities of the state. It marked a distinct and more
or less conscious departure from the earlier policy - laissez faire. It
not only involved efforts to know, and even intervene in the country's
agriculture at least to the extent that it helped in fixing the optimum
land revenue demand of the state and prevented agriculture and cattle wealth
from collapsing and, in turn, bringing down the entire land revenue structure.
It also entailed
--------------------------------------------------
1 Ibid. Resolution V."'
p.345
`"activity to know more exactly the export-import possibilities and requirements of India, in economic products mineral as well as vegetable.
This entire orientation is all the more understandable in the context of the position of Britain and the British Empire in the middle - and late Victorian period. By about 1870's Britain had found it had virtually exhausted its lead over the newer continental economic powers notably Germany. It found it had actually falled behind in the matter of technique and had to learn from them in this respect and in respect of technical education to prepare cadres for the increasingly compled processes of industry. We find in this period the Royal Commission on Technical Education going over the continent and coming out with an entire series of reports on the subject. Another and allied development that took place over this period was an increase in the migration of British capital to colonies including India. There was also possibly a shift in the character of capital investment in India. What went previously into irrigation and public works, started going into mining and jute as well. Export-import trade increased - imports by 50% and exports by 200%.1 Exports from India were mainly agricultural raw materials - cotton, wheat (for British food requirements) oilseeds, jute. The assumption by the state of increased activities and the growth of its economic departments was but natural. The trend was only a beginning of what was to develop more and more.
The influence of both these factors viz. the increased economic activity
or, rather, intelligence of the state in India and the movement for technical
education and related modification of general education in England, has
in part, been traced earlier (Ch. IV and VIII). It remains now to note
the development of agricultural and allied education under the impact of
these factors and the agricultural -----------------------------------------------
1 Durga Prasad: India's Foreign Trade (p.181)."'
p.346
`"policy of the Government of India. This policy, let it be restated, was composed of three distinct elements (a) revenue organisation at the village as well as higher levels (b) agricultural enquiry being of importance for purposes of rational assessment and collection of land revenue in the short term and ultimately for laying the basis of agricultural improvement and (c) when agricultural enquiry had reached a certain stage of completeness agricultural improvement e.g. introduction of new techniques and, if necessary, new staples involving agricultural experiment and dissemination of new techniques and knowledge to the cultivator. The implications of these elemtns for agricultural education were : (1) training of village officers in the keeping of records, etc. (2) the education of revenue officials in a griculture so that they brought more agricultural insight and understanding into their work conducted agricultural enquiry more efficiently and even disseminated agricultural information among the peasantry (3) training of the experts who would carry out agricultural experiments (4) conduct of experimental farms where research could be carried out and demonstration farms through which techniques could be disseminated among the peasantry and finally (5) the extension of elementary education among the peasantry and inclusion of such elements, hereafter to be called agricultural, in elementary education as might make the peasantry receptive to improved techniques.
The time for positive agricultural improvement was, however, not yet and during the eigties, therefore, the Government of India did not encourage the promotion of either agricultural college or, till 1888, experimental or demonstration farms. As noted earlier (Ch. IV) the Department of Revenue and Agriculture attempted in the main, to influence the activities of the education departments in the direction of introducing into the elementary school syllabuses the"'
p. 347
`"science of how a plant grows by means of object lessons on familiar objects of the rural environment and lessons on similar topics in readers and textbooks. The 1883 Conference of agricultural officers recommended, too, the introduction of agriculture in high schools and normal (teacher-training) schools further to strengthen this attempt. The Department also suggested, the use of incentives in the form of revenue and teaching appointments - which had so far encouraged elementary education in order to emphasize the importance of the study of agricultural science at the elementary as well as the not-so-elementary levels and of surveying, village accounts, statistics and records. This policy was pursued slowly and gradually till, in 1897, the Government of India which had so far respected the claims of heredity for appointments as village officials in many provinces, laid down that even these hereditary claimants would be entitled to their appointments only on condition that they passed the educational test required.1 All this was expected to effect not merely the improvement of the qualifications of government employees in the desired direction but also the dissemination of these kinds of knowledge among the people in general including the peasants.2
This view of policy in relation to agricultural education would have
required, perhaps, a maximum of one agricultural college in India from
which would have passed instrucdtors for normal schools, high schools,
government servants in the revenue and agricultural departments. College
of agriculture or proposals in relation to them, however, not only existed
but were promoted and fostered by provincial agricultural officers mainly
because they did not share the view of the Government of India in this
matter.
------------------------------------------------
1 Resolution II on Improvement of Land Records Eswtablishments - Rev. &
Agri. (Agri.) Progs: June 1897 27-63.
2 Buck's Note Home (Edn.) Progs: Oct., 1897 14-88 B.
348
Thus the Madras College of Agriculture had so far justified itself to the
technical officers of the Board of Revenue in so far as it furthered their
scheme of practical farm work based on observation and experiment. The
attempt to connect it with the introduction of agricultural elements into
general education has been noticed earlier. In 1884, the college passed
to the control of the department of education. Mr. Grigg, the Director
of Public Instruction, while proposing three branches at the college viz.
agriculture, forestry and veterinary medicine and surgery stated "The
end in view should be not to turn out finished practical farmers but to
supply the public revenue service of the country and the larger agricultural
capitalists with servants who have a sound scientific knowledge of the
principles of good tillage"' three letter word not legible - too?`"
".1 He also suggested that graduates be given preference in revenue
employment. This the Madras government considered premature in view of
the fact that revenue service at the higher levels required a knowledge
of law in addition to that of agriculture. The courses at the college were,
in consequence, modified to include revenue and account regulations, rural
economy, etc.
The Madras Committee on Agriculture in 1890, too, proposed a scheme
which tended to emphasise the revenue and general education aspects of
agricultural instruction as contrasted with direct agricultural improvement.
Thus it proposed two courses at the college - a 3 year course after F.A.
for intending trained agriculturists and for superior teachers of agriculture
and 1 year course after middle school examination for lower teachers of
agriculture, for special courses in veterinary surgery and medicine and
for forestry for the various branches of revenue service and for callings
where a moderate knowledge of agriculture was required. The Committee also
stressed the utility of agricultural education to those who would go in
for revenue employment. It expressed the hope that as agricultural education
--------------------------------------------------
1 Madras Agri. Commission Report"' ... not legible
p.349
`"became more widespread it would influence the agricultural sections of the population. It also underlined the spread of general education among agricultural classes which in its opinion - would be more rapid if accompanied by elements considered useful by the agricultural classes.
The actual influence of higher agricultural education, too, had been,
despite the intentions of its authors, to leaven the various services of
the state with an agricultural element. Thus the same report stated the
careers followed by passed students of the college as follows:-1
Farming or incharge of of farms or gardens. 39
Importers of improved implements. 1
Instructors in Schools and Colleges.
6
Demonstration of agricultural implements. 1
Agricultural Department. 17
Veterinary Department. 25
Revenue Department. 61
Forest Department. 29
Salt Department. 2
Police Department. 2
Sanitary Inspector. 1
Pleader. 1
Editor of Agricultural Journal. 1
Asstt. Curator in Government Museum. 1
Merchants. 4
Unknown. 24
----
213
The other early attempt at relatively higher agricultural education was
in the agricultural class of at the Poona Civil Engineering College (later
renamed Poona College of Science). This
--------------------------------------------------
1 Madras Agri. Commn. Main Report.
350
class, started in pursuance of Sir Richard Temple's policy noted earlier, was relatively poor in equipment and staffing1 and it, too, was definitely planned with a view to recruiting better subordinate employees.2 The class did not, however, prosper very well because of the inferior material and prestige inducements held out to entrants. While for inferior appointments they were treated on par with "first F.A." men, the Government of Bombay decided to hold out Mamlatdars' appointments if the university agreed to grant a degree in agriculture. The class, therefore, dragged on with a small number of pupils till the end of the century.3
Two other agricultural institutions of a somewhat lower order that got
established were the Nagpur Agricultural Class and the Cawnpore Agricultural
School. The Cawnpore School emerged out of the little training that used
to be carried out at the farm and with relatively little staff trained
men to be kanungos. This happened consequent upon the expansion of the
department of agriculture in 1882 and the proposal received neither support
nor opposition from the
------------------------------------------------------
1 A Professor of Agriculture was appointed at the Poona College in 1879
although a farm could not immediately be provided. The propriety of this
it may be recalled, was questioned by the Secretary of State but upheld
by the Government of India. The latter, however, urged upon the Bombay
Government to assimilate it into any fresh vacancy that might occur so
as not to transgress the current embargo on any new expenditure.
2 The Committee which was appointed to submit a detailed scheme for
the classesfelt that "as an encouragement to youngment to join the
agricultural class and to duly qualify themselves in that branch of education,
the time they spent in the class ought, provided (1) they have matriculated
and (2) that they have passed the final examination of the class to be
allowed to count as time spent in the Govt. services, in so far as promotion
in that service is concerned, and that they ought to have a prior claim
to men who having matriculated in the same year have entered Govt. service.
By this means we shall have a number of men in the Revenue Department of
the Govt. service who will be in a position to exercise a great influence
for good in the agricultural operations of a Taluka". Home (Edn.)
Progs: March, 1879 - 27-30.
3 Q.R. IV pp.267-8.
351
Secretary of State or the Government of India provided it did not entail
any additional financial burden on the latter.1 The number of men passing
out was small and remained so for very long.2 The Nagpur class was started
in 1888 and soon the farm on which it was run had an English class meant
for intending employees of the revenue department and Hindi class meant
for landowners' sons and a class for teachers under training.
In 1881 the Government of Bengal had instituted two scholarships for the study of agriculture at CIrencester, England. Proposals for teaching agriculture were made at the time of the enquiry into and reorganisation of the Seebpore Engineering College. It was suggested that agriculture be taught with a view to training prospective managers or sub-managers or estates, tehsildars, land stewards and employees connected with survey work.3 The proposals commended themselves to the committee of enquiry but were not at the moment accepted by the Government of Bengal. The agricultural class at Seebpore started as late as 1897 after certain further development detailed below.
Another proposal for agricultural education was one made by agricultural
officers of the N.W.P., C.P. and Punjab. It suggested the provision of
training in agriculture for all the provinces of norther India, including
Bengal, at the Dehradun Forest School.4 This was stated to be preferable
to sending men for being trained at Circencester, as it would combine a
high level of training with Indian experience and would have involved only
one major appointment, that of an agricultural chemist to the staff of
the Dehradun School. But the scheme fell through for want of support from
Bengal which wanted a college for itself.
----------------------------------------------------
1 Rev. & Agri. (Agri.) Progs: July, 1882, 40-47 & March, 1883,
7-9.
2 10 in 1901. Rev. & Agri. (Agri.) Progs: Dec. 1901 3A.
3 Papers relating to Technical Education in India pp.40-43.
4 Rev. & Agri.(Agri.) Progs: Feb. 1885, 5-17.
352
Alongside these attempts to promote higher agricultural education, there
was the tendency to promote agricultural classes in high schools, as in
Bombay and Madras. The step was in line with the recommendation of the
Hunter Commission for bi-furcation of secondary education and found support
from Mcdonnell's note on technical education as also the recommendations
of the Agricultural Conference of 1888. In neither province, however, did
the course acquire any very wide popularity. In Madras, the scheme of the
university matriculation examination provided no scope for courses of this
kind. The Government's own alternative examinations - technical examinations,
upper secondary etc. - did not for various reasons acquire any wide popularity.
The proposals of the Director of Public Instruction to reduce fees for
students offering agriculture and to make this test compulsory for revenue
service did not meet with the government's approval. Want of equipment
and suitable teachers dogged the fortunes of the course in Bombay as well
as in Madras. To the extent, however, that it existed it helped some students
to secure government employment.
Dr Voelcker, agriculturist chemist to the Royal Society, who was deputed by the Secretary of State to make a survey of Indian agriculture submitted a report which was the subject of discussion at two Conferences of agricultural officers in 1890 and 1893 and which led to the formulation by the Government of India in 1897 of policy on a number of matters connected with agriculture including agricultural. "' sic.`" One major outcome of this was to secure more explicit recognition for the view that the primary, or at least major utility of agricultural education lay in the more useful training of future officers and employees of the revenue department. This, in turn, had its effect on the nature of this training which became less and less suited to the requirement of practical agriculturists or agricultural experts or
353
research workers. On the other hand, it also led to the Government of India to adopt a less restrictive attitutde in respect of the number of agricultural colleges in the country.
One major recommendation of the 1890 Conference was to the effect that an agricultural chemist be appointed by the Government of India who along with his assistant and with assistance from provincial agricultural departments would carry out an analysis of the various agricultural tracts of India - a step related to agricultural improvement, it also suggested "that if any attempt is to be made by Government to further agricultural improvement, it is higly desirable to maintain in each province a system of farms for enquiry and experiment; and that for the proper conduct of them, for securing continuity of enquiry, and for communicating information to officials and the public, the service of a competent adviser of the character recommended".1
Dr. Voelcker's recommendation with respect to agricultural education was that:
"a higer scientific training shold be afforded to those who may
become teachers of agriculture or be brought into official relations with
the cultivating classes. As to elementary or village schools it will be
enough to introduce the agricultural element in the final stage, and in
the form of reading books introducing agricultural subjects as illustrations.
In Middle Schools there shold be text-books on agriculture - on elementary
botany, physiology etc. in fact, object lessons and also instruction in
drawing maps. At Hig Schools, instruction shold be more directly agricultural
and illustration farms should be wherever possible attached to such schools
for the purpose of showing the actual cultivation of the crops of the district.
All such cases must be under a teacher who has received a qualification
in agriculture such as a college or institution would confer. By means
of this agricultural teaching aided by the illustration of practice provided
in the farm or land attached to the school, interest in agriculture could
be strived up".2
--------------------------------------------------
1 Rev. & Agri. (Agri.) Progs: May, 1891 7-11.
354
Read in the context of his further recommendation that education in agriculture be carried ot in departments of agriculture of existing colleges rather than separate institutions, this would indicate a preference for revenue-oriented agricultural education rather than training of competent experts for either farming or experimental work leading to work for direct agricultural improvement. The Conference however did not accept his recommendations as such as would be evident from the following summary of its views:1
1) Extension of elementary education among the agricultural classes
(Resln.I). Elementary principles of agriculture should figure prominently
in the education given at village schools "with the view of creating
more interest in agricultural classes".2 That suitable teaching and
good books should be worked for in order to attain these ends.
2) Recognition shold be given to agriculture by the universities as an
optional subject in the courses for a degree
. 3) Agricultural education should not be given exclusively3 in special
institutions but combined with existing courses.
4) Thorougly practical training in field and laboratory and examination
in the same should form part of higher agricultural training wherever it
is given.4
5) Claims of agricultural training should be recognized in selection for
government services and it shold be a subject of examination where competitive
examinations are held.
-----------------------------------------------------
1 Ibid.
2 Of course there were men at the Conference like Mr. Steedman of Punjab
who held that this would "certainly result in the improvement of education
but not in agricultural improvement" and favoured experiments and
demonstrations in experimental stations as a means to the latter end. But
the Conference as a whole considered it's views well founded in the long
run.
3 The word is indicative of the Conference's disagreement with Dr. Voelcker
and ultimate accomodation of his views.
4 Note - This recommendation, apparently contradicts Dr. Voelcker's view
on the question and state of the case for separate agricultural "'
rest of line not legible
`"355
Thus the Conference had put across a programme of bothe the extension of
higher agricultural education by linking it with government services and
for the improvement of its scientific and practical quality. On the first
of these questions, differences persisted for quite some time between the
Government of India and the provincial governments1 till, following the
1893 Conference, Sir E.C. Buck undertook to go round the provinces to discuss
with provincial departments of agriculture and education the questions
of the desired reform of elementary education, and of higher agricultural
education. It was noted that utility of the Madras College had been accepted
by the Madras Committee and government on grounds of its utility to revenue
service. The government had also taken the additional step of recognizing
the diploma of the college as equivalent to B.A. for service purposes.
Besides, there was a certain amount of demand from Mysore and a small proportion
of the students came from land owning classes and went back to land.2 In
Bombay, too, while the Government refused to recognise the agricultural
diploma as equivalent to a degree it referred to the university the question
of giving a degree in agriculture. The recommendation to treat agriculture
men on par with others for services were accepted in principle by N.W.P.
& Bengal too. But the former felt they cold not, considering the shortage
of educated men in the service of the government, subordinate literary
qualifications to agricultural ones.3 In Bengal the Governor did not feel
it would be worthwhile to
----------------------------------------------------------
1 The Secretary had as recently as 1892 expressed the view that "It
is questionable whether the time has yet come to offer except to a very
limited extent, a high class agricultural education to any section of the
people. The special conditions of soils and climate in India as affecting
agriculture are not yet sufficiently investigated to admit of any authoritative
agricultural instruction". He felt that while agricultural enquiry
and experiment proceeded in accordance with measures initiated by local
and imperial Governments it would be advisable to prepare the agricultural
classes for it by improvement of general instruction. Rev. & Agri.
(Agri.) Progs: Feb., 1894 11-13.
2 Rev. & Agri. (Agri.) Progs: June 1897 No.50.
3 Ibid. No.35 & 28.
356
"' word not legible `"the university to accept agriculture as
an optional but that the opening of agricultural classes at the Sibpur
Engineering College and the prospects of employment would be adequate.
The Government of India, in consequence, agreed, in principle, to permit
more than one place of instruction in agriculture at a higher leve. The
1897 resolution recognised that:
"The question has now been put on a somewhat new footing by the argument
urged in the three provinces of Madras, Bombay and Bengal that a thorough
and practical education in agriculture and allied sciences ending in a
high class college diploma or an agricultural degree develops the intelligence
of students just as well as a literary course; that it certainly fits them
as well, if not better, for duties in land revenue and cognate services
and that it is very desirable to encourage the appointment of men so trained".
It also suggested that:
1) Agricultural degrees and diplomas be recognized in service. Diploma
be eventually compulsory for certain appointments e.g. teachers at agricultural
schools and assistants to director of agriculture.
2) Not more than four first class agricultural institutions viz. Bombay,
Calcutta, Madras and somewhere in N.W.P.
3) Practical instruction of candidates for certain subordinate appointments
at a farm be further considered.
4) School courses of a special kind preparing candidates for agricultural
diploma be initiated and
5) The practice of allowing school masters a few months at farms before
or after training be considered.
The operation of all these recommendations was an extremely slow process, far apart from the fact, that finances were generally difficult to obtain and schemes were always modified out of shape on grounds of economy, it was also true that no genuine and effective policy for agricultural education had been evolved yet. While the
357
'" word not legible `" that extension of elementary education
among the agricultural population and the introduction of agricultural
elements in elementary education would be conducive to agricultural improvement
were repeated,1 the fact was that there was no adequate experimental scientific
knowledge in respect of Indian agriculture which could be disseminated
among the peasantry. It was also true that demonstration farms would perhaps
have been more effective in propagating improved agricultural practices
had such been found through experimentation and research. Equally true
was the statement that in the absence of authentic scientific knowledge
about Indian agriculture, the agricultural teaching in colleges and schools
tended to be confined to botany and agricultural chemistry in general -
a training not suited to producing research workers, practical farmers
or personnel for experimental or demonstration farms. With suitable modifications,
it served the better to man the revenue services - a phenomenon giving
rise to the question why it was necessary to make this training expensive
or technical at all. The Imperial Education Conference (1901) also expressed
a doubt whether there was any need in India for advanced theoretical education2
and whether it would not suffice if practical knowledge were supplemented
by a merely elementary acquaintance with such subjects as botany and chemistry.
It also remarked that it seemed open to question whether in some cases
the time that had been devoted to higher agricultural education might not
profitably be diverted to elementary vernacular instruction in agriculture.
--------------------------------------------------------
1 It may be noted here, however, that the faulty idea that agriculture
as such could be taught in elementary or even high schools was often entertained.
2 That the interest of both classes (Govt. servants and land owners) may
be served by the institution of agricultural schools in which practical
work is conducted on an experimental farm, pari passu with simple veterinary
teaching, and where required with instruction in surveying, village accounts
and records, land revenue and law procedure, and the principles of agricultural
science; that there may be two department in these schools one conducted
in English and the other in the vernacular; and that the vernacular department
may be conveniently utilised for the instruction of village school masters
in the elements of agriculture. (Quoted in Rev. & Agri. (Agri.) Progs:
Oct., 1903, 38.
358
The perpetual need for economy and doubts such as these prevented the proposal for an agricultural college for Cawnpore from materializing. It was, instead, suggested that a more practical and less theoretical course not related to a university or a degree be offered there and the possibilities of an efficient agricultural school for zamindars be investigated.1 The establishment of an agricultural college at Cawnpore also got delayed on account of the Pusa College and Research Institute whose emergence is to be noted presently. The agricultural class at the Sabpur Engineering College was soon given up and was replaced by one at Sabour (Bihar). The Madras Agricultural College, too, was found insufficient particularly in practical training, abolished in 1904-05 and a new one at Coimbatore replaced it. The Poona College, too, was seriously enquired into and placed on a sounder and more satisfactory footing in 1904-05.2
The scheme for an agricultural college and research station emerged
out of the request from the Government of Bengal for a deputy director
of agriculture who would be an expert and would carry on research as the
director was a non-technical man and the assistant director, a man with
training from Cirencester was totally occupied with routine work. Certain
estates were available at Pusa in Bihar which had been utilised by indigo
planters for improving their yield in order to compete with synthetic dyes
from abroad - an attempt which did not succeed. It was noted that the location
could be utilised for experimental work in connection with all varieties
of crops in india. It was decided after considerable discussion to locate
here a research station and agricultural college of a high order
1) to serve as a model for similar institutions of Provincial Governments.
----------------------------------------------
1 Rev. & Agri. (Agri.) Progs : D c o.1901 3-5B & Oct.1903 38.
2 Q.R. 7 pp.(177-8).
359
2) to initiate lines of experiment and test them before transferring them
to be tried under local conditions on Provincial experimental farms or
to carry on experiments which require to be tested before they can be recommended
for trial on Provincial Farms.
3) to test methods of cultivation, agricultural implements, agricultural
practices such as rotations and the like and other matters for agricultural
enquiry results of which can be practically tested in each province.
4) to test and improve varieties of crops and to grow improved varieties
of seeds for distribution in provinces.
5) to test under different conditions and highly skilled supervision results
of provincial experiments and to secure continuity - which owing to change
of Directors is not possible at the provinces.
6) to serve for practical training of students at the Imperial Agricultural
College.
7) to provide a field for experimental cultivation for the research work
at the research station.1
The 1904 resolution describes it as ...
"an Imperial Agricultural College in operation with an Experimental
Farm and Research Laboratory, to be carried on under the general direction
of the Inspector General of Agriculture, at which it is intended to provide
a thorough training in all branches of agricultural science, combined with
constant practice in farming work and estate management. In addition to
shorter courses for those students who are intended for lower posts, there
will be courses of instruction extending to five years, which will qualify
men to fill posts in the Department of Agriculture itself, such as those
of Assistant Directors, Research Experts, Superintendent of Farms, Professors,
Teachers and Managers of Court of Wards and Encumbered Estates. It is hoped
that a demand may arise among the landowning classes for men with agricultural
attainments and that the proposed institution may succeed in meeting that
demand. Arrangements will also be made to admit to the higher courses those
who have undergone preliminary training at the Provincial colleges; and
there by to exercise upon those colleges an influence tending gradually
to raise their standard of efficiency."2
-----------------------------------------------------
1 Rev. & Agri. (Agri.) Progs: July, 1903 6-9A.
2 "'not legible `"p.472
360
The continued emphasis on training government officials is there. But Pusa was the beginning of seriousness about agricultural research and improvement on the part of the Government. It outlined in a despatch to the Secretary of State in 1905 the complete organisation of a provincial agricultural department providing for a high grade agricultural college and a research station and Rs. 20 lakhs were provided for agricultural improvement in 1905-06. It is another matter, however, that the research parts of the scheme were out down by the Secretary of State in later years with the result that the nature of the teaching in the colleges remained relatively academic1 and as late as 1913 agricultural education had to be described thus:
"The existing idea of an Agricultural College, however, appears to be a compromise between these two in compatible ideals, and it is probably, as suggested above, that the existing institutions will have sooner or later, to choose between becoming rural university colleges, teaching what may for want of a better term be called Rural Philosophy - for the sons of wealthy land holders and scholars aspiring to educational and research appointments - or farm institutes giving courses in highly specialised techniques for professional agriculturists. The upper ranks of the Agricultural Department would be filled by men whose education had culminated in the former type of institution; the lower ranks, partly at any rate, by men trained in the latter."
Veterinary Training:
A consideration of veterinary training is related to agricultural education
in so much as cattle breeding and cattle diseases have a bearing on agriculture
and, indeed, the agricultural institutions at Madras and Poona paid some
attention to it. But in this field, as in medicine and engineering, the
army had its own corps and veterinary schools grew up, in the first instance,
in response to the needs of the army. Veterinary medicine and surgery for
the horses and promotion of good breeds of horses in adequate
--------------------------------------------------
1 McKenna's Note in the Proceedings of the Board of Agriculture 1913.
361
numbers were the duties which were carried out by the establishment whose lower ranks were trained in veterinary schools. Thus, there was a military veterinary school at Poona, considerably before a civilian institution at Bombay1 and another was founded at Lahore out of largely military considerations.2 The Government had, however, taken notice of outbreaks of epidemics among cattle much earlier, following epidemics in 1868 and 1869, the Government of India appointed a Cattle Plague Commission which besides suggesting a number of precautions laid stress "on the need of a skilled agency for the treatment of cattle and recommended the establishment of a school for the special object of imparting instruction in veterinary sciences and training a class of natives for service among the people whether as government officers or private practitioners".3 The school proposed to be established at Calcutta did not, however, materialise. Only the army, thus, had any agency for veterinary work and in case emergency"' sic. `", army surgeons were deputed to deal with epidemics with the result that the experience gained was lost to the country. Madras alone had a civilian veterinary officer since 1865. There were small, though not very successful attempts to run veterinary class in Burma (1872) and Oudh (1873).
After the report of the Famine Commission provision for veterinary training
and veterinary agencies of provincial governments received more support.
The Secretary of State urged some action to
----------------------------------------------------
1 Rev. & Agri.(C.B. & C.D.) Progs: Dec.1883 p.2-3.
2 The school was established after the abolition of a small training class attached to the Remount Depot at Napur (Rev.& Agri.(C.B. & C.D.) Progs: Dec. 1883, 1). "This project which had been under consideration since 1877 was brought to a practical issue by the experience of the Afghan Campaig, in which the scarcity of trained farriers proved a serious inconvenience to the Transport Service. The school though primarily intended to supply military requirements is a civil institution, affording instruction to private scholars and to a number of students supported by local District Committees in the Punjab". (Despatch No.2 of 1886 to Secretary of State dt. 10th July, 1886 - Rev. & Agri.(C.B. & C.D.) Progs: July 1886, 3-13).
3 Rev. & Agri. (C.B. & C.D.) Progs: July, 1886 - 1-2.
362
prevent cattle disease.1 This directive and a decision by the Military
Department to reorganise its veterinary staff so as to throw out some of
its officers led to the proposal for a civilian veterinary department with
the Government of India as well as the provinces. It was, to begin with,
not implemented on financial grounds and the unwillingness of the Military
Department to share any part of the salaries of its surplus officers who
were to be deputed to the civilian Veterinary Department.2 Continued pressure
from the Secretary of State and greater realisation of Veterinary needs
led some of the provinces, Bombay, Madras, Burma and Punjab to sanction
appointment of one senior veterinary officer each. The Conference of provincial
officers in 1885, too, had suggested creation of provincial veterinary
departments and the promotion of veterinary training. It is, however, the
requirements of the army viz. better promotion of horse breeding cooperation
by civilian agence which could utilise the whole of the district staff
and which by the virtue of its larger strength would mean smaller area
per officer that ultimately led to the transfer of the horse-breeding portion
of the army veterinary establishment to civilian control thus providing
a large enough nucleus on which to start a department in 18913 with the
proviso that in the event of war the entire department could be requisitioned
for satisfying army needs.
In the context of this slow progress, the growth of institutions for veterinary training had a similar fate. A college and hospital at Bombay was, after successive postponements for lack of finances, founded in Bombay in 1886 as a result of a private endowment from a Parsi gentleman and with grant-in-aid from the government including the
---------------------------------------------------------
1 Secretary of State Despatch No.21 dt. 20th April, 1882.
2 Despatch No.2 of 1886 dt. 10th July - Rev. & Agri. (C.B. & C.D.)
Progs: July, 1886 3-15.
3 Rev. & Agri. (H.B. & A.S.) Progs: Nov. 1889 44-54B; April 1890.
10-18; Nov.1891 13-72.
363
appointment of a government official as Principal.1 The college had a class
for graduates who would qualify as assistant surgeons and another for salutris.
The prospects of employment of graduates were not, however, very sure as
the local and municipal boards did not have funds to offer employment and
private practitioners suffered competition from quacks. The number of entrants
as well students passing out, therefore, fell after the first two years.2
This situation continued even till the end of the century, when it faced
further difficulty due to the opening of the Bengal Veterinary College
depriving the Bombay institution of its monopoly as the sole veterinary
institution for graduates.3 The proposal was even made that as the courses
for the two classes were almost identical the diffence consisting only
in entrance qualifications, the higher class be abolished and training
for salutris alone be conducted.4 But due presumably to the efforts made
by the principal and staff the attendance at the higher course rose in
1901-02 from 33 to 465 and the Bombay government finally decided to retain
the class and open out to graduates additional prospects as sanitary inspectors
under the municipalities, etc.6
Another Veterinary college opened towards the close of this period was in Bengal. It started as a school with the support of private endowments in 18937 and was in 1899 raised to be a college with a senior class taught through English as in Bombay.8 This was done
--------------------------------------------------------
1 Rev. & Agri. (C.B. & C.D.) Progs: Dec.1883, 2-3; Sept. 1884,
9-11; Dec., 1884, 7; August, 1886, 6-8.
2 Rev. & Agri. (H.B. & A.S.) Progs: Feb.,1891, 35-37B; Dec.1891,
17-18B.
3 The Lahore Institution was only a vernacular school.
4 Rev. & Agri. (C.V. Admin.) Progs: Jan.1901, 8-9A; Sept.1901, 9-11A;
Dec.1901, 5A
5 Rev. & Agri. (C.V. Admin.) Progs: Sept. 1902, 15-17A.
6 Rev. & Agri. (C.V. Admin.) Progs: Sept. 1903, 21-22A.
7 Rev. & Agri. (H.B.A. A.S.) Progs: March, 1893, 1-3.
8 Rev. & Agri. (C.V. Admin.) Progs: Oct. 1893, 1-3.
363
despite the policy of Government of India not to encourage too many higher
institutions, mainly on the ground urged by the Bengal Government that
few students came to the lower class conducted in Bengali and that the
demand for the English course was persistent.
A veterinary school at Ajmer was started in 1894 but the later proposal for raise"' sic. `"it to college level was not agreed to by the Government of India.1 Actually, it was soon decided to abolish the school, merge it with the Lahore School which had been considered the best-run and best-equipped institution and was now raised to be the Punjab Veterinary College.2
There were, besides these, other places for veterinary training, e.g.
the Military School at Amballa. One major province which did not succeed
in opening a veterinary training institution was Madras which fell outside
the horse-breeding zone of the army. The Government of India did not view
with approval the opening of college level veterinary course at the Madras
College of Agriculture at Saidapet, presumably because it was under-equipped
for the purpose and because the effective demand for either kind of trained
person viz. for army horse breeding operations was not present.
There were only two instances worth mention of an attempt to promote investigation
into cattle diseases and allied problems. One viz. the laboratories of
Bombay Veterinary College merely to serve the purposes of teaching. The
other was the Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory at Poona set up to make
a geographical survey of cattle diseases, to prepare and test vaccines
and to assist in teaching at the Poona College of Science.3 The laboratory
had a staff of 3 officers and was later expanded.
------------------------------------------------------------
1 Rev. & Agri. (H.B. & A.S.) Progs: Jan., 1893, 1-3; & Rev.
& Agri. (C.V. Admin.) Progs: 1901 12-15A.
2 Rev. & Agri. (C.V. Admin.) Progs: Sept. 1901 12-15A;
Apr. 1903 5-7A;
Aug. 1902 11-13; &
Aug. 1903 15A.
3 Rev. & Agri. (H.B. & A.S.) Progs: Aug. 1892 27-34.