The Beginnings of Modern Political Thought
The Enlightenment
The great period of discovery and understanding in the Western World known as "The Enlightenment" occurred during the mid to late 1700's. The ideas and energy fueling this influential era was chiefly carried over from the previous century with the popularization and understanding of the ideas of such great philosophers and scientists as Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, John Locke, and Isaac Newton. That group of thinkers had brought with them the ideas of natural law, the laws fundamental to the state before human society which all following advances were loosely based upon, and natural rights, privileges in natural law which all men were entitled to by the very fact that they were human. The general attitudes of the leading philosophers of this time period were of general skepticism towards tradition, confident in the power of human reasoning, the regularity and harmony in nature and the laws governing it, and the advance and progress of civilization with time.
The great hallmark of this era was the overall advancement of the way things were seen in the eyes of the West as a result of greater communication and learning than ever before. As Europeans became more educated during this momentous time period, they began to lose their skeptical and supernatural view of things and had less fear towards God, religion, and the devil. Religion was seen in more objective terms; a common analogy of the time was that God was like a watchmaker: the intricacies of the physical universe were like those of a watch, and just as watchmaker was needed to create a watch, so to was there a presence which had made the universe. Enlightenment thinkers stressed the worth of the individual and the personal consciousness of spirit therewith, an idea which culminated in the creation of a new form of Christianity preached by Englishman John Wesley. In the late 16th century, a series of "methodist societies" were created from the belief in his sermons, and the Methodist Church was thereby founded in 1791 in the newly free American Colonies, greatly affecting the English attitude towards the concept of true democracy and individual freedom later on.
The Philosophes
The most influential group of thinkers of the time were the French Philosophes ("philosophe" is simply French for "philosopher"). They were primarily aristocratic writers and politicians who greatly spread the ideas of the Enlightenment. Although they lived in an era of great progress, the philosophes were compelled to write and think under censorship, or state scrutiny of published material under invariable degrees, sometimes mild (Britian), sometimes harsh (Spain). French censorship, which most philosophes were most concerned about, was loosly administered but fairly strict. Because the French royal government discouraged oppenness with political criticism, philosophes often had to resort ot abstract criticism of government, the Catholic Church, and French culture.
Philosophes would meet on a regular basis at salons, great parties hosted by individuals of status which were specifically for political and social discussion. Many people, like the Madame de Geoffrin, became famous for their large and academically conducive salons. Often, intellectuals from all over Europe would attend these grand parties to discuss topics of importance, often to avoid harsh authority in their homelands. Philosophers and writers had excellent opportunities to meet and discuss ideas at salons.
It was no wonder that in such a conducive environment for thinking, as hidden or abstract as it was, many extremely influential works came as a result of this era, such as Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws, Rousseau's Social Contract and Discourse on the Origin of Inequality , and Diderot's Encyclopedia, perhaps the most widely read of all. The Encyclopedia was a collection of historical, scientific, an technical knowledge obtained to that time, and had a strong undertone of criticism towards society and the status quo. All important French philosophes contributed to this monumental work of this era. With the spread and acceptance of knowledge through such French work, there became several important philosophes all throughout Europe. Among them were King Frederick the Great of Prussia, Emperor Joseph of Austria, and several influential Italians and Germans.