A Definition of Technology and Educational Technology
Bruce Jones
EDT 5510
February 20, 1999
It is conceivable that in the beginning of man’s thought process the use of tools, for any purpose, was not a consideration of importance. These tools were used to collect insects, eggs and other tasty tidbits. At some time during the pre to early hominid era the connection was made between the use of the tool and the consequences of that use. As in today’s society of lesser apes, early man probably used small twigs and sticks to gather food and to pry or dig out various foods. At some time in the past man began to structure his tools for specific purposes based on observation of a natural event of some kind: Breaking a rock and getting cut, making a connection between the stick used to collect ants and a spear, a forest fire and cooked food. These types of encounters may have taken place thousands of times before a collective cultural history began to develop perpetuating the use of these tools. Thus, in my opinion, the beginning of technology. However, this is only one kind of technology - mechanical.
Earlier than the beginning of mechanical technology was the development of another kind of technology, communication and the ability to pass along lessons learned in a form other than instinct and imitation. This is less visible to modern man because of its natural roots and antiquity. Through the use of language early hominids were able to communicate on a slightly higher plane than their contemporaries. The separation of the species at this technological branching may not have been abrupt or obvious but it assisted in the development of a much larger capacity to interact internally and externally and thus share in and develop natural resources. From these humble beginnings the technology of today was derived.
No matter the origins or the utilization of technology one thing has been difficult to do - establish a definition. The Greeks of antiquity had a word, te or art, they used to indicate technology. When the ancient Greeks talked of ‘the art’, they were talking about the technology used in the production of the goods being discussed (Crane)1999.
[…] .… [T]he art of making shuttles is subsidiary to
the art of weaving .…
Aristotle Politics 1256a
[tools] .… they could not be replaced by others until men
had rediscovered the art of metal-working.
Plato Laws 678d
Stranger: First, then, let us observe that there are two arts
Involved in all production.
Younger Socrates: What are they?
Stranger: The one is a contingent cause (supplying the tools
with which to produce the goods) , the other is the actual cause
(the end product and the technology to produce it).
Plato Statesman 281e
This produces a rather straightforward and simplistic definition of technology. It shows an early connection between technology and its function in the general environment.
If we compare the implied Greek definition to more modern definitions we find that there is little change in the structure. As an example this one quoted by Anglin (1995):
Technology is a rational discipline to assure the mastery of man
over physical nature, through the application of scientifically
determined laws.
Simmon, 1983, p. 142
Therefore, any definition of technology has to include its origin, purpose, and future. To do this you have to separate the technology into the specialization of its use. If you are talking about the technology of refining iron you must define it in such a way that anyone listening to the description knows it is iron you are talking about. For instance the use of the terms pig iron and Bessemer Converter assists the student in realizing the subject being discussed. Consequently, defining technology generically is a most difficult task.
Another consideration of any definition of technology is the social climate of the times. Is there a public or governmental bias toward the use of a particular technology? Plato is often misquoted as having been against the art (technology) of writing. The statements against writing come from a lecture by Socrates, as written by Cicero, in which he describes an Egyptian Pharaoh’s reaction when the technology of writing is brought to him by one of the gods (Theuth):
"This invention, O King, will make the Egyptians wiser and will
improve their memories; for it is the elixir of memory and wisdom
that I have discovered."
To which the King answered:
"…. [O]ne man has the ability to beget arts, but the ability to judge
of their usefulness or harmfulness to their users belongs to another ….
will produce forgetfulness in the minds of those who learn to use it …."
Cicero Phillipics phil. 2.54 (Yonge)
Whether or not this was stated as a discourse against writing is not clear. However, Ceasar in the Gallic War states;
.… to devote themselves the less to the efforts of memory, relying
on writing since it generally occurs to most men, that, in their
dependence on writing, they relax their diligence in learning thoroughly,
and their employment of the memory.
Ceasar Gallic War 6.14
The discussion on the ability to enhance the learning potential of students through the use of modern technology runs parallel to many of these discussions. We, as a society, have always been distrustful, fearful, and hopeful that new technology contains the powers of change and betterment society has placed on it. When we place that technology in the classroom those fears, apprehensions and hopes about the effectiveness for learning are heightened. This is, again, not new, as is observed in the following quote from Plato’s Statesman:
Flutes must not be introduced into education, nor any other professional instrument, such as the harp or any other professional instrument, such as
the harp or any other of that sort, but such instruments as will make them
attentive pupils either at their musical training or in their other lessons.
This seems to parallel a statement by Clarke (1983) discussing the use of electronic media in the classroom:
…. [I]t was not the medium that caused the change but rather a curricular
reform that accompanied the change. .… only the content of the vehicle can influence achievement.
In investigating and comparing briefly the various implied definitions and utilization’s of technology and its use in education the following definition for technology and its application in education can be derived.
Technology is any process based on observable and measurable results that produces or assists in the production of an end product with a demonstrable usefulness.
Applying this to Education:
Any technological artifact, which may be used in the act of teaching, instructing or educating which produces as an end product a learned individual.
References
Anglin, Gary J. (1995). Instructional Technology Past, Present, and Future (2nd ed.).
(pp. 2). Englewood,Colorado: Libraries Unlimited, Inc.
Clark, Richard E. (1983). Researching Research on Learning from Media. Review of Educational Research, 53 (4), 445-459. University of Southern California
Crane, Gregory R. (ed.) The Perseus Project, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu, January, 1999. [available]
Simmon, Y.R. (1983). Pursuit of happiness and lust for power in technological society. In C. Mitchum & R Mackey (Eds.), Philosophy and Technology. New York: Free Press.