A Comparison of
Non-Manual Signals Among Hearing, Hard of Hearing and Deaf Signers
Ruth Tamar Jackson,
Rebecca Orton and Peter Un
Introduction
This
research compares non-manual signals (NMS) usage among Hearing informants, Hard
of Hearing informants that are late learners of sign language, and Deaf
informants that are all native signers of ASL.
The results may tell us whether NMS are incorporated into the sign
language of non-native users. This
information would have ramifications.
If non-native users of ASL can be taught NMS, then the education system
should redouble its efforts to make sure that this is done. ASL is not a complete language without the
use of NMS.
Hypothesis
The
hypothesis that we are trying to investigate is in equations (1) - (3) and
summarized in equation (4) in Figure 1 below.
Hearing informants are represented by 'H', Hard of Hearing as 'HOH', and Deaf as 'D'. Hearing informants are defined as those that
are hearing and are late learners of ASL or contact sign. Hard of Hearing informants are defined as
those that have a hearing loss and are late learners of ASL. Deaf informants are defined as those that
are native signers of ASL. The
equations signify the following relative amounts of NMS. Deaf people drops the least NMS. Hard of Hearing people drops some NMS. Hearing people drops the most NMS.
(1) D > H
(2) D > HOH
(3) HOH > H
(4) D > HOH > H (in
summary)
Figure 1 - Equations
regarding the amount of NMS expected in three groups, Deaf (D), Hard of Hearing
(HOH), and Hearing (H).
This
hypothesis D > HOH > H is basically implying three things. First, the Deaf group is natively skilled in
NMS, and has the most hearing loss.
Second, the Hard of Hearing group is not natively skilled in NMS, and
has some hearing loss. Third, the
Hearing group is not natively skilled in NMS, and does not have any hearing
loss. There is nothing unusual about
this particular hypothesis. It would
only be natural to expect that Hard of Hearing people would become more fluent
in NMS use than Hearing people because they have some hearing loss and as a
result are more visually oriented.
This
suggests that there is a relationship between NMS fluency and hearing
loss. That relationship is that the
degree of fluency in NMS would be indirectly proportional to the degree of
hearing loss. If hearing loss is indeed
a factor, then, by extrapolation, NMS use would never be native-like in the
Hearing or the Hard of Hearing groups.
The Hearing group does not have anything in their favor that would have
helped in becoming fluent in NMS. The
Hard of Hearing group has some hearing loss in their favor in becoming fluent
in NMS. The Deaf group has the most
hearing loss by a matter of degree, and are already natively skilled in
NMS.
Why
We are Examining this Hypothesis
This
hypothesis is saying that NMS can only be learned natively as part of a first
language by people with the most hearing loss.
NMS taught during second language acquisition of sign language would
never become native-like among people with full hearing or with some hearing
loss. Results may confirm that fully
fluent NMS can only be learned natively as part of a first language, or if NMS
fluency can indeed be achieved during second language acquisition of sign
language.
Either
way, NMS should be explicitly taught to sign language students. It is possible that the phrase
"nonmanual signals" is not known to a typical sign language student
with mediocre motivation and limited resources. That NMS perform grammatical functions in natural sign languages
is in general not widely known (Taub 1997:45).
If signers are unaware of the significance of NMS, there may be a
possible breakdown in communication.
English is explicitly taught to children in public school over many
years as a requirement even for native speakers, but ASL is not. ASL is taught optionally to those students
that want to learn ASL and only for a short time. A student with a heavily vested interest in ASL would have to
strive for many years to learn ASL fluently as a second language. Even native ASL signers may not be aware of
all the grammatical functions of a natural sign language. Being a native signer or speaker does not
guarantee full knowledge and understanding of that natural language and its
grammar.
Literature
Review
Natural
sign languages, such as ASL, involve not just the arms and hands, but the whole
body and face. Baker and Padden (1978:27-57)
mention that in sign languages, there are five different channels of
communication: (1) hands and arms, (2)
head nods, shakes, and tilts, (3)
facial expressions including emotions, (4) eye gaze and blinks, which will be
described in more detail below, and (5) body posture, torso twisting, or body
shifting which may include stepping to the side. These five channels of communication have different functions but
interact together in concert to communicate the full meaning intended. For example, Wilbur (1994:221-240) mentions
that NMS produced on the mouth and the lower half of the face perform lexical
or semantic functions. These so called
modifiers provide adjectival and adverbial information that modifies the
meaning of the ASL noun or verb. In
contrast, NMS produced on the eyebrows and the upper half of the face, as well
as head nods and body movement, perform grammatical or prosodic functions
(Wilbur 1994:221-240).
Wilbur
(1994:221-240) says that "the prosody of ASL is carried by nonmanual
signals...". In other words, NMS
also perform the some of the same functions as voice inflection. For example, emotions are conveyed through
the voice and on the face as well, but may
not be considered part of the grammar.
Another function of prosody that is part of grammar occurs when a
question is being asked. In spoken
English, the voice rises towards the end of the question. There is parallel NMS in ASL for questions. While a question is being signed in ASL,
raised eyebrows indicates a question is being asked where an answer is simply a
'yes' or a 'no' (Baker-Shenk 1983:76, Liddell 1980:20, Wilbur
1994:221-240). This NMS is called a
'Y/N question' NMS or just 'question' NMS.
A
question is one type of a sentence. The
function that voice inflection and question
NMS perform applies to the whole sentence syntactically. Individual words and signs perform other
directly assignable syntactical functions like nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, etc. The functions these words
and signs perform also fall under the syntactical category but as components of
the sentence. There are other
categories that these words and signs could fall under, like lexical,
morphological, and discourse markers.
According to Robert E. Johnson (p.c. 1998), there are four different
kinds of NMS: lexical, morphological
(or modifiers), syntactical, and discourse markers. One possible definition proposed for NMS is a definition based on
these categories. For example, NMS are
those facial expressions, head movement, eye gaze, and body shifting that are
used to express lexical, morphological, and syntactical meanings in natural
sign languages or that are functioning as discourse markers regulating
conversation.
How
are NMS Categorized?
Lexical
items correspond roughly to the notion of 'word' or 'sign'. Lexical NMS are those found within a single
sign, or produced alone without any associated sign. Morphological items are those that add extra meaning to other
signs or sign phrases. Morphological
NMS are those found in ASL inflections, such as the protracted-inceptive,
unrealized inceptive aspect, and iterative inflections. Modifiers are mostly mouth configurations,
and could be categorized as lexical (Wilbur 1994:222), morphological
(Baker-Shenk 1983:64, Davies 1983), or syntactical but will be treated
separately. Modifiers are difficult to
categorize because they can perform lexical,
morphological and syntactic functions depending on one's point of
view. A modifier can perform a lexical
function by modifying the meaning of a single sign. But modifiers are usually considered to be morphological in
function. Modifiers also perform
syntactical functions by modifying the meanings of ASL noun or verb phrases
like adjectives and adverbs do.
Syntactical components are those ordered groupings of items required to
produce a grammatical well-formed sentence, like noun phrases, verb phrases,
adjectives, adverbs, etc. Syntactical
items are different types of sentence forms such as assertations, questions,
conditionals, etc. Syntactical NMS are
those NMS that are required to produce different types of sentence forms, like
those already mentioned for syntactical items.
Discourse markers are those items used by the receiver to regulate conversation. NMS used as discourse markers are those NMS
produced by the receiver as feedback.
These categories of NMS as well as eyeblinks, other kinds of head nods,
eye gaze, and head tilts will be described in further detail below.
Lexical
NMS
In
ASL, there are a few pairs of signs that are distinguished only by NMS. These
'minimal pairs' are so named because only one feature, in this case,
NMS, has contrastive meaning. Every
other feature of these minimal pairs are identical. Taub (1997:46-48) states that the ASL signs NOT-YET and LATE only
differ in their NMS. The sign NOT-YET
has a NMS of a protruding tongue and headshake, and LATE does not (Baker 1976,
Taub 1997:46-48, Liddell 1980:17-18).
Another example of a minimal pair is UNEXPECTEDLY and WRONG. UNEXPECTEDLY has NMS of raised eyebrows,
widened eyes, and mouth-opening jaw drop, WRONG does not (Baker 1976, Taub 1997:3). Clearly,
NMS cannot be considered as supplemental to the sign in some cases. Instead, the NMS is vital to distinguishing
between two otherwise identical signs.
Baker
(1976) mentions a few NMS with no associated signs. MENSTRUAL-PERIOD has NMS of puffed cheeks. DO-YOU-WANNA-HAVE-INTERCOURSE? has NMS of a
tongue pushing out the cheek.
OH-WHY-NOT? has NMS of the head tilted to the side, a puffed cheek and
then release. OH-DEFINITELY-YES! has
NMS of the head tilted to the side, closed eyes, and the mouth in an 'O'
shape. THAT'S-REALLY-INTERESTING has
NMS of an open mouth, then tightly closed lips, half-closed eyelids, and a
slowing nodding head.
Morphological
Some
ASL inflections also have NMS. For
example, the protracted-inceptive (PI) inflection has a horizontal tongue
waggle in certain cases. This PI
inflection means a "protracted beginning" of the action (Taub
1997:53). If the handshape is an open five
handshape where fingers could wiggle, then that finger wiggling is used instead
of the tongue waggle (Taub 1997:53-54).
Liddell
(1984:257-270) analyzed an unrealized inceptive aspect inflection meaning
"JUST AS (subject) WAS ABOUT TO BEGIN (action)." Liddell found that this inflection has the
NMS which he called 'CURB' (Chest Up Rotate Back) and a forward counter
rotation which may or may not be a variant of CURB. Specifically, the CURB NMS is described as a torso twist to one
side while inhaling, and then freezing at the point where the chest and
shoulders are raised. Eye gaze is also
significant, referring to the object of the action in question (Liddell
1984:267).
Another
example, currently under discussion by Liddell's ASL morphology class is the
iterative inflection meaning "over and over again" (Klima &
Bellugi 1979:294). One possible
production of this iterative inflection uses head nods and an associated NMS
called STA-STA. This STA-STA NMS is
mouthed 'sta'...'sta' with each head nod downward. These NMS within inflections would fall under the morphological
category since inflections, in general, are considered to be
morphological.
Modifiers
Davies
(1983) mentions that lateral and vertical tongue flapping carries two
associated meanings. The first meaning is intense enthusiasm and
excitement. The second meaning is
extensive time or distance. It is not
clear which of the two different ways to flap the tongue has the first meaning
and the second meaning. According to
Lynn Jacobowitz (p.c. 1998), vertical
tongue flapping is rarely seen, and may mean 'hurry' when used with the sign
LOOK. The horizontal tongue flapping
can be used for both the first and second meanings. However, it is clear that tongue flapping functions like a modifier.
Liddell
(1980:42-47) also mentions several other modifiers. The NMS 'mm' is described as 'keeping the lips together and
pushing them out without puckering.'
This NMS means either 'with relaxation and enjoyment' or 'normal and proper'
depending on the context. The 'mm' NMS
can also be used by the receiver as a discourse marker to indicate that what
was being signed was expected and normal (Baker-Shenk 1983:68).
The
NMS 'th' means lack of control, inattention, unintention, and unawareness
(Liddell 1980:50-52). The NMS 'th' is
produced by pushing the lips out with a protruding tongue into a 'th'
configuration where the upper lip is slightly curled upward, and the head is
tilted (Liddell 1980:50-52). The 'th'
NMS can also be used as discourse marker by the receiver to indicate that the
subject of the conversation is 'really out of it' (Baker-Shenk 1983:68).
The
NMS 'cs' means proximity in either a temporal or spatial way (Liddell
1980:47-50). This NMS 'cs' is described
in great detail:
"...when recency is being contrasted with a
much greater period of time (e.g. not last week - just recently), the signer's
head leans and turns toward the side of the body on which RECENTLY is being
made, and the shoulder on that side (or both sides) is being pulled forward and
raised; the facial expression is also made more intense by a greater
contraction of the same facial muscles...all this activity brings the cheek and
shoulder closer together (hence the notation 'cs')."(Liddell 1980:47)
The
facial expression referred to in this quote is similar to what happens to the
lips when talking out of the side of
your mouth.
Syntactic
NMS
Wilbur
(1994:221-240) noticed that the eyebrows perform syntactic functions for
most sentence structures in ASL, except
for assertations (or declaratives).
Wilbur did not mention another sentence structure, negation, in her
research which may involve the eyebrows as well. Assertations have mostly head nods associated with them
(Baker-Shenk 1983:82).
The
yes/no question has NMS of raised eyebrows, widened eyes, head tilt forward,
torso shift forward, and eyegaze to the receiver (Baker-Shenk 1983:76, Liddell
1980:20, Wilbur 1994:221-240). The
rhetorical question has NMS of raised eyebrows, head tilt, and eyegaze to the receiver (Baker-Shenk
1983:79, Wilbur 1994:221-240).
The
topic part in topicalized sentences has NMS of raised eyebrows, slight backward
head tilt, and constant eyegaze to the receiver (Baker-Shenk 1983:88, Liddell
1980:22, Wilbur 1994:221-240). The 'if' portion of the conditional has NMS
of raised eyebrows (or squinted under some circumstances), head tilt, and torso
shift (Baker-Shenk 1983:90, Wilbur 1994:221-240).
Wh-questions
are those questions asking who, what, where, when, why, and how. The wh-questions has NMS of squinted
eyebrows, head tilt, torso shift forward, and eyegaze to the receiver
(Baker-Shenk 1983:78, Wilbur 1994:221-240).
Negation has NMS of squinted eyebrows, side-to-side headshake, wrinkled
nose, raised upper lip, and a frown (Bahan 1996:340, Baker-Shenk 1983:80).
Liddell
(1980:23) found that there are indeed restrictive relative clauses in ASL. A restrictive relative clause is a form of
syntactic subordination of sentences.
These relative clauses have NMS associated with them: brow raise, head tilted back, and raised
upper lip.
Discourse
Markers
Discourse
markers are those things the receiver says or does as back channel feedback to
indicate the receiver is understanding the signer while the signer is talking
or signing at the same time. Examples
of spoken discourse markers are when an English speaker nods and says 'uh-huh',
'hmmm', 'really?' or 'yeah?'. Examples
of manual ASL discourse markers are OH-I-SEE (a nodding Y hand), KNOW, and
REALLY (Collins & Petronio 1998:22).
Examples of NMS used for back channel feedback are head nods, head
tilts, brow raises, and nose-twitching in UH-HUH (Baker-Shenk 1983:68, Collins
& Petronio 1998:3).
Eyeblinks
In
the proposed definition, eyeblinks would not be considered NMS even though they
do have linguistic functions. For
example, boundary eye blinks mark the end of ASL syntactic phrases. In the linguistics field, these syntactic
phrases are called 'ungoverned maximal projections' (Wilbur 1994:221-240). Eyeblinks also function as cues for the
receiver to pay special attention to, for example, the fingerspelling of
"difficult or unusual" words (Wilbur 1994:221-240). Eyeblinks may function as emphasis to lexical
signs themselves. Statistics show that
eyeblinks during lexical signs last longer than those marking boundaries
(Wilbur 1994:221-240). However,
blinking in general is affected by a variety of physiological, perceptual,
emotional, cognitive, as well as linguistic functions (Wilbur 1994:223). Eyeblinks will be excluded from our study
because they are not under complete and solely linguistic control.
Head
Nods
Two
types of head nods are considered to be NMS that are labeled as "_hn"
by Liddell (1980:29-38). The first type
is used for emphasis, and the second type as an existential predicate where
there is a subject with no verb in a main clause (Liddell 1980:29-38). Liddell mentions other types of head nods
used for other functions and these are described as follows. A head dip or slight lowering of the eyes
are used in an affirmative response to a question. A head dip is also used to
indicate a first person subject in a sentence with no overt subject (Liddell
1980:27, Stokoe 1960:64).
Rapid
slight head nods are used to insert a parenthetic clarification regarding the
subject in the middle of the sentence.
Linguists call such clarifications 'appositives' or 'reduced
nonrestrictive relative clauses' (Liddell 1980:24-25). This kind of head nod distinguishes between
appositives (with head nods) and possessive statements (without head nods) in
ASL that are made typically in English with an apostrophe 's'.
Two
other kinds of head nods are fast head nods to assert something is true when it
has been claimed that it is not, and those emphatic head nods appearing inside
clauses (Baker-Shenk 1983:86-87, Liddell 1980:27-29). These kinds of head nods are often accompanied by tight lips
which also emphasizes that something is true, or indicates that 'I really mean
it' in commands (Baker-Shenk 1983:85-86).
Another
kind of head nod is used for role playing and has other associated
features: nonneutral facial activity
maintained and no eye contact (Liddell 1980:25-26). This kind of head nod is used when the signer first takes on a
role. This head nod serves as a signal
and occurs after the person being role played (or imitated) is named.
Eye
Gaze and Head Tilts
Baker-Shenk
(1983:74) found that eyegaze and head tilts play a role when setting up
referents in space, and when making pronominal or deictic references to these
spatial locations. Bahan (1996)
researched these two referential types of NMS and found that they perform specialized referential functions in
ASL. That is, the default subject is
referred to when the head is in neutral position. An overt subject is referred to when the head is tilted. The object is referred to with eye gaze. Other associated NMS like body lean, eye
gaze, etc. also indicate subject and object referents with regard to classifier
predicates.
Methodology
Each
member of the research team was responsible for one category of informants of
which there were three; hearing informants, hard of hearing informants that are
late learners of ASL, and deaf
informants that are all native signers of ASL.
Each team member obtained permission to videotape the clients,
videotaped them and had them fill out a survey. Each informant had an ASL competency of at least level 5, as
designated by Gallaudet University in ASL evaluations.
For
gathering data, we began with a survey which obtained information regarding if
the informant could participate, demographic information, family background,
signing experience, and any other considerations they felt were important in
regards to their signing skills.
Regarding
the survey requirements we asked what level of ASL the informant was evaluated
at. We also asked what level of English
literacy was achieved in school as well as the level of formal schooling
achieved. The main reason for these specific
survey requirements was to ensure that clients would be able to comprehend both
the ASL story and the English book used for the research.
Demographic
information which we obtained included place and year of birth, type of hearing
loss if any, region of the US the clients are from, and type of schooling
received. The reasons for requesting
this demographic information were the following. First, to establish what type of effect the schooling received,
age, and regions may have on NMS usage.
A student would be more exposed to sign language at a residential school
for the deaf rather than at a public school.
The age may indicate a generational effect. Regions may have an impact especially if certain regions do not
teach sign language students about the use of NMS. Second, to see if the type of hearing loss, if any, has an effect
on NMS usage. For example, a person
with hearing loss may be more visually oriented and more likely to notice NMS
use.
Within
the survey we requested information regarding the informant's family background
with regards to hearing loss and use of sign language. The specific issues
were, the number of not fully hearing people in the informants family,
including the informant. We also asked
the informant to note if family members used sign language to communicate and
if so, whom? The usefulness of family
background information is to establish if the informant was exposed to sign
language at an early age and possibly a native signer, and to see if sign
language was used as a first language or a strong second language in the
informant's household.
The
next question asked was in reference to signing experience. The goal of this question was to find out what
labels the informants use to identify their sign language (ASL, contact sign,
MCE, etc.). There may be differences in
the usage of NMS in each type of sign language. Plus, this information would assist in determining if the participants are native signers. We requested responses to the following
questions; type of signing used, year
first learned to sign, length of time signing, whether the informants signed continuously or intermittently, where
they learned to sign, and we asked if the informants remembered any ASL
teachers telling them what NMS were and to pay attention to them.
Lastly,
we gave the informants an opportunity to add anything that they believe might
affect the study of her/his sign language.
Using
the videotapes made, we compared usage of NMS for each informants. Each subject was videotaped while signing a
prerecorded ASL story called, "Exploring A Cave" and a written
English story, "Frosty the Snowman" which have potential for the use
of NMS. We attempted to control all the
factors so that only NMS are variable.
We did not want to use conversations, nor have differences go by
unaccounted for due to lack of fluency in written English or ASL.
We
will look at the NMS within three categories.
The first category is Grammatical Structure: Conditionals, Rhetorical Questions (both Y/N and WH-), Y/N
Questions, WH-Questions, Topicalization, relativation, negation, etc. as
established by ASL 5 classes at Gallaudet, and published sources. The second category is Modifiers: mm, CHA, SMA, LGE, cs, tongue wiggle, open
mouth, puckered lips, puffed cheeks, tightly clenched lips,
"intense", sucked cheeks, etc. as established by ASL 5 classes at
Gallaudet, and published sources. The
third category is Individual Signs that have an associated NMS, like NOT-YET,
etc. as established by ASL classes at Gallaudet. Published sources have been spotty regarding this area.
Findings:
Survey
Data
Please
look in Appendix 2 for a detail listing of the survey responses. Listed below are data that was considered
significant in our analysis.
Hearing
Group
Female
Hearing Informant 01 and Female Hearing Informant 02 learned NMS through
classes. Both had personal commitment
to learn to sign.
Deaf
Group
No
one explicitly taught Male Deaf Informants 03 and 04 how to use NMS. The NMS were acquired natively.
Hard
of Hearing Group
Female
HOH informant 05 knew some NMS, specifically MM, OO, and CHA. She mentioned that she improved her NMS
through a level 5 ASL class. She wants
to improve her sign language to be like native Deaf people.
Female
HOH informant 06 did not know anything about NMS. (We noticed her lack of knowledge directly from her
videotapes). It seemed that her NMS
were inconsistent and changed rapidly. She
stated that she prefers not to improve on her sign language; but use the skills
she has developed.
Videotape
Data
To
measure the usage of NMS, we chose certain concepts from the book and video
which we felt would have NMS.
Analysis on the NMS used in the book,
"Frosty the Snowman" is based on four concepts. 'Magic' and 'Joyful' were actual words found
in the book. 'Role-Play' is where the
signer takes on the role of Frosty when the book refers to the utterances by
Frosty: 'I'm Frosty the Snowman!' and
'I'll be back when the next big snow falls!'
Role-shifting may be included as part of the NMS for role-playing. 'Play' was implied through English and
pictorial description of the children ice-skating and playing with Frosty
within the book. See Figure 2 below for
the associated NMS with these concepts.
Concept/Word
NMS
Magic: Eyebrows up and face
surprised
Role-Play: Does the participant take on
role of Frosty
when he comes to life and
says, "Hi, I am Frosty?".
May include torso or shoulder
shifts.
Play: Tongue out, cheeks
hollow
Joyful: MM mouth shape/smile,
face lights up with joy
Figure
2 - NMS associated with concepts and
words in the book "Frosty the Snowman."
Analysis
on the NMS used in the video story, "Exploring a Cave" is based on
five concepts. We chose those signs or
concepts that had NMS associated with them on the videotape itself. See Figure 3 below for the associated NMS
with these concepts.
Concept/Word NMS
Happy/Enjoy
(to be exploring with friends): MM
mouth shape or smile, eyebrows up
Anxiety eyebrows down, "intense" -
teeth clenched
Flashlights
go-out tongue
out, cheeks hollow, eyebrows up
Serious
thought/debate "intense" - teeth clenched
Acknowledgment
of experience - head
shake up and down, eyebrows up
"Wow,
what an experience"
Figure
3 - NMS associated with concepts and signs in the videotape "Exploring a
Cave."
Results
based on the book are shown in Figure 4 below.
Concept Informant Informant
Informant Informant Informant Informant
/Word 01 02
03 04 05 06
Hearing Hearing Deaf
Deaf HOH HOH
Magic Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Role-Play* Yes
Yes Yes
No Yes
Yes
Play Yes No Yes Yes Yes No
Joyful Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes
Yes
TOTAL 4/4 3/4
4/4 3/4 4/4 3/4
* May include role shifting.
Figure
4 - Findings of NMS while signing the book, "Frosty the Snowman."
Results
based on the videotape are shown in Figure 5 below.
Informant Informant Informant Informant Informant Informant
01 02 03 04 05 06
Hearing Hearing Deaf
Deaf HOH HOH
Happy/Enjoy Yes N/A
No Yes No
No
Anxiety Yes Yes Yes Yes No N/A
Flashlight
go out Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
No
Serious
thought Yes Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes
Rich
experience Yes Yes Yes N/A
No No
TOTAL 5/5 4/5 4/5 3/5
2/5 1/5
Figure
5 - Findings of NMS while signing the story, "Exploring a Cave."
The
analysis of the total number of NMS recorded as seen in the TOTAL line on the
chart in Figure 4 are inconclusive because all the groups have similar
amounts. No conclusions can be drawn
other than all the groups are capable of producing some NMS while signing the
story from the book. However, the
analysis of the total number of NMS recorded as seen in the TOTAL line on the
chart in Figure 5 is that the result
appears to be H > D > HOH. If the
data from the first chart in Figure 4 are added, this result would still be the
same. The interpretation of the
equation H > D > HOH is that the
Hearing group drops the least NMS, Deaf group drops some NMS, and the Hard of
Hearing group drops the most NMS.
Our
hypothesis, D > HOH > H was not confirmed from our data. The result we have found, H > D > HOH,
has the following implications. The
Hearing group is not natively skilled in NMS, however retains the use of
NMS. The Hard of Hearing group also is
not natively skilled in NMS, and seems to eliminate many NMS in their signing
and the Deaf group is natively skilled in NMS and seems to eliminate some of
the NMS in their signing. Hearing loss
is not a significant factor in becoming fluent in NMS for the Hard of Hearing
or Hearing groups. NMS use can become
native-like in the Hard of Hearing and Hearing groups.
Data
Collection Issues
We
were unable to determine the effects of regions on the amounts of NMS between
the three groups because of insufficient number of informants representing each
general region, like the East Coast, Midwest, and West Coast. Analysis was subjective based on our
collective opinion as to if a NMS was seen or not. Decisions to measure NMS were difficult. Sometimes a portion of a NMS was seen and we
choose to say only 'Yes' or 'No' so the answer would be "Yes" if even
a portion of a proper NMS was observed.
The research was skewed based on the opinions of what would or should be
found. We only observed certain
portions. Perhaps if more data was
analyzed the results would be different.
Another issue is that NMS seem to be personally adjusted by each
informant depending on personality, who
signing with, regarding what, etc. It
is questionable that NMS can be
measured with so many possible varying factors.
It's
possible that native Deaf signers have different use of NMS, as do late signers
who are HOH and Hearing. It may be
difficult to compare the three groups because usually Deaf of deaf grow up with
ASL as their native language. All other
people do not have ASL as a native language.
It is difficult to compare non-native signers with native signers. Also, it is natural for people to think that
the native deaf signers use NMS correctly; but does that mean that any
deviation is incorrect or non-usage?
This is a subject that may need further research. But first it must be decided how one can
research more precisely NMS use differences between Deaf, Hard of Hearing or
Hearing informants. It would be
interesting to compare a CODA (Child Of Deaf Adults) to a native Deaf signer and see if their NMS
matched.
Analysis
of Data from Hearing Informants
We
believe that hearing signers of natural sign language can learn to use NMS in
many ways, for example, through being taught NMS in sign language classes,
socializing with native users of sign language, etc. However, not all NMS that we looked for were found. We can state that they can learn NMS but do
not have perfect grasp of how and when.
We also think that hearing informants have the most NMS due to a
possible tendency to make sure all NMS are produced in their sign language, a
notion similar to hypercorrecting. The
Hearing group may be trying to produce all NMS applicable while some applicable
NMS are dropped within the Deaf Group because the Deaf group is more relaxed
and confident in using NMS within their native language.
Analysis
of Data from Deaf Informants
They
acquire natural sign language as a native language at an early age. We noticed that the deaf informants used the
same NMS with regard to the "anxiety" and other signs when we
videotaped them at different times. Please note that NMS varied a lot among all
the informants. We think that it is
possible that some NMS were missed due to gender differences. The two Deaf informants were male, the rest
of the informants were female. One
other possible explanation is that NMS are dropped because the content is clear
without them in a Deaf Culture context.
Analysis
of Data from Hard of Hearing Informants
We
agree that the low occurrence of NMS in this group could be due to the fact
that the informants are not aware of the need and use of NMS and they are not
native signers. However, we see some
usage of NMS and we could credit this to hard of hearing people being more
visually aware than hearing people in general.
However, the finding H > D > HOH has an implication that hearing
loss is not a factor in learning to use NMS to the point of native-like fluency
because the Hearing group has more NMS than the native Deaf group. The HOH and Hearing groups are not
native. Some other factor, not hearing
loss must be chosen to explain this result.
Maybe this other factor could be a strong motivation to learn sign
language as indicated by the data in the survey. One HOH informant had low amounts of NMS and low motivation to
improve on her sign language. The other
HOH informant had relatively high amounts of NMS and high motivation to improve
on her sign language.
Conclusion
Our
hypothesis, D > HOH > H was not confirmed from our data. The data we gathered shows H > D >
HOH.
Results
clarified that NMS can be taught during second language acquisition and not
just be learned natively as part of a first language. Results showed that second language users of ASL can benefit by
knowing that they need, as a whole, to spend extra time working on mastering
NMS, if possible, and at that level of ASL fluency. Results demonstrated that native users of sign language should
realize that they may not understand non-native users because of misuse,
underuse, different use, or no use of NMS.
Results enable us to declare that on a rudimentary level, NMS are needed
to produce comprehensible ASL.
Implications
These
results may enable ASL teachers to see what types of training in NMS is
necessary for HOH or Hearing students to have so that they are fully understood
by the Deaf students. Being taught NMS
appears to be very beneficial for both the Hearing and HOH groups and could be
beneficial for the Deaf group as well.
If ASL was taught to Deaf people, what would ASL look like as a
result? According to Kannapell
(1989:191), deaf informants in her study favor the idea of students taking a
language course in their native language for various reasons, including
learning ASL in depth. In such a
course, NMS would need to be explicitly taught.
Appendix
1:
Study
Survey
by
Ruth Tamar Jackson, Rebecca Orton and Peter Un
Survey
Requirements:
1. What is the highest level of ASL you were
evaluated at, or had a passing grade in, at Gallaudet? (ASL 5, ASL 5+, native, or waived)? _______________________________
2. What is your level of English literacy that
you have achieved in school (high school, college prep, undergraduate,
graduate, etc.)?____________________________________
3. What is your level of formal schooling (high
school, college prep, undergraduate, graduate,
etc.)?___________________________________________________________
Demographics:
4. Where were you born?
__________________________________________________
5. When were you born? ___________________________________________________
6. Are you ___Hearing, ___Hard of Hearing, or ___Deaf?
7. In general, where are you from (West Coast,
East Coast, Midwest, Southern US, Northern US, other)?
______________________________________________________
8. What type of K-12 schooling did you have
(i.e.: residential, public school, private school, other)?
___________________________________________________________
Family
Background:
9. Number of people that are not fully hearing in
your family (including yourself if applicable) _______________
10. Do your other family members use sign
language to communicate with you?
Yes: _____ No:______
11. If yes, who (i.e.: mother, father,
sister(s), brother(s), other)? For
how long? Does the family member have
a hearing loss?
Family
member:
Years/Months:
Hearing Status:
__________________ ___________________ ________________
__________________ ___________________ ________________
__________________ ___________________ ________________
__________________ ___________________ ________________
__________________ ___________________ ________________
__________________ ___________________ ________________
Signing
Experience:
12. What kind of signing do you currently use
(ASL, SimComm, SEE II, Signed English (PSE), contact sign, other)?
_________________________________________________
13. What year did you first learn to sign?
______________________________________
14. How long have you been signing? Years ______________ Months____________
15. Have you been signing continuously over a
long span of time, or off and on (intermittently) since you started learning to
sign? _______________________________
________________________________________________________________________
16. Where did you learn to sign (i.e.: from
family, deaf school, deaf community, college classes, community classes, videotapes,
computer software, books, independent study, interpreter program, other)?
_________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
17. Do you have any memories of teachers or others
telling you to pay attention to facial expressions, non-manual signals or
markers, or body language? If so,
please describe.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Other
Considerations:
18. Please add any other factors that you think
affect your sign language use and/or ability:
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Appendix
2:
Survey
Data
Parenthesis
indicate which informant.
1. 2 ASL 5+ (01, 02), 1 ASL 5 (05), 2 Native
(03, 04), Waived (06)
2. 3 Undergraduate (03, 04, 06), 2 graduate(01,
02), 1 "post-college" (05)
3. 3 undergraduate(03, 04, 06), 3 graduate(01,
02, 05)
Demographics:
4. Idaho (06), North Carolina (04), New York
(03), Rhode Island (05), Alabama (02), Pennsylvania (01)
5. '57 (04), '59 (03), '60 (02), '65 (05), '73
(01), '77 (06)
6. 3 deaf (03, 04, 05), 1 hard of hearing (06), 2 hearing (01, 02)
7. 4 east coast (01, 03, 04, 05), 2 west coast
(02, 06)
8. 2 residential (03, 04), 1 public &
residential (06), 1 public & private (01), 2 public (02, 05)
Family
Background:
9. 4 (03, 04),
1 (05), 2 (06), 0 (01, 02)
10. 3 no (01, 02, 05), 3 yes (03, 04, 06)
11. 3 no data (01, 02, 05), Deaf Father (04),
Deaf Mother (04), Sister (deaf at birth); Deaf Mom (03), Deaf Dad (03), Deaf 4
x 'Son' (03); HOH Step-father (06).
All
answers for Years/Months were unclear.
Signing
Experience:
12. ASL-6 (01, 02, 03, 04, 05, 06); Contact
Sign-1 (05, 06); PSE-2 (02); SimComm-1 (06)
13. '? Since I can remember' (01), 1992 (02),
'at birth' (03), 'at age of 1 1/2' (04), '18 years old - 1984' (05), 'learned
at early age - then forgot it all & had to learn again in 7th grade' (06)
14. 38yrs (03), 40yrs (04), 9yrs (06), 6yrs. 2
months (02), 25yrs, 14yrs (05), no data
(01)
15. 5 continuously (02, 03, 04, 05, 06), 1 on
& off (01)
16. 'deaf school, Idaho' (06); 'deaf community,
college classes, videotapes, deaf friends' (05); 'from family and deaf friends later at deaf school, Gallaudet
classes & interpreting program' (01); 'Community college and deaf
community' (02); family (03); 'Deaf parent' (04)
17. 'In drama-for deaf plays-be clear with my
signs-and get to point' (06); 'before taking ASL V, I knew oo-mm-cha cues but
achieved a higher level of expression thru inflectional signs – facial and
handshapes' (05); 'played games using only facial expressions-in several
classes a primary part of grade was use of NMS' (02); 'In ASL 3 I learned how
the same sentence could be declarative, question, and negative through using
facial expression' (01); 'No' (03, 04);
18. No! (03); no data (04); 'I do not really
"copy" or learn from others whom strong in ASL – I stay with what I
know-and keep my level of signing level "same" not better or improve'
(06); 'How native signers and residential deafies reject mainstreamed deaf
because of their lack of language fluency affects my ability to become
proficient ASL signer – I learn better and pick up more through them!!' (05); 'I used a few signs all of my life, I
took up ASL classes in 1989 and took classes on & off until 1993, then I
did not take any more classes or have much exposure to deaf people until coming
to Gallaudet in Aug. 1997 since then it's been an intense study of ASL.' (01);
'Personal commitment to learn sign, good friends that are native
signers-spending time with them.' (02)
References
Bahan, Benjamin J.
1996. Non-manual realization of agreement in
American Sign Language. Unpublished
dissertation. Boston University, Boston,
MA.
Baker,
Charlotte Lee. 1976. What's Not On the Other Hand in American Sign Language.,
In Papers From the Twelfth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic
Society. University of Chicago, IL.
Baker,
Charlotte; Padden, Carol A. 1978. Focusing
on the Nonmanual Components of American Sign Language. In P. Siple (Ed.) Understanding Language
Through Sign Language Research. (Perspectives in Neurolinguistics and
Psycholinguistics). San Francisco, CA:
Academic Press, 27-57.
Baker-Shenk,
Charlotte Lee. 1983. A Microanalysis of
the Nonmanual Components of Questions in American Sign Language. Unpublished dissertation, University of
California, Berkeley, CA.
Collins,
Steven; Petronio, Karen. 1998. What Happens in Tactile ASL? C. Lucas (ed) Sociolinguistics in Deaf
Communities Vol. 4. Washington, DC:
Gallaudet University Press.
Davies,
Shawn Neal. 1985. The tongue is quicker
than the eye: Non-manual behaviors in ASL.
In:
Stokoe,
William C. & Volterra, Virginia (eds): SLR' 83. Proceedings of the third
International Symposium on Sign Language Research. Rome, Rome/SiverSpring : CNR/Linstok Press,
185-193.
Kannapell,
Barbara. 1989. An Examination of Deaf College Students'
Attitudes toward ASL and English. In
Lucas, Ceil (ed) The Sociolinguistics of the Deaf Community. San Diego, CA:
Academic Press, 191-210.
Klima,
Edward S.; Ursula Bellugi. 1979. The
Signs of Language. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Liddell,
Scott. 1980. American Sign Language Syntax.
The Hague, NY: Mouton.
1984. Unrealized Inceptive Aspect in American Sign
Language: Feature Insertion in Syllabic
Frames. In: Drogo, Joseph & Mishra,
Veena & Testen, David (eds):
Proceedings from the 20th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic
Society. Chicago, IL: Chicago
Linguistic Society, 257-270.
Lucas, Ceil; Valli Clayton. 1989. a. Language
Contact in the American Deaf Community.
In Lucas, Ceil (ed) The Sociolinguistics of the Deaf Community. San
Diego, CA: Academic Press, 11-40.
b. 1992. Language Contact in the
American Deaf Community. San Diego, CA:
Academic Press.
Stokoe,
William C. 1960. Sign Language
Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American
Deaf. In Studies in Linguistics: Occasional Papers 8. New York:
University of Buffalo.
Taub,
Sarah. 1997. Language in the Body: Iconicity and Metaphor in American Sign
Language. Unpublished dissertation. University of California, Berkeley, CA.
Trotter,
Julie Ward. 1989. An Examination of Language
Attitudes of Teachers of the Deaf. In
Lucas, Ceil (ed) The Sociolinguistics of the Deaf Community. San Diego, CA:
Academic Press, 211-228.
Wilbur,
Ronnie. 1994. Eyeblinks & ASL
Phrase Structure. Sign Language Studies, 84. Linstok Press, Inc. 221-240.