Evolution is a continuous process from the beginning of the universe to the present day. Different parts of evolution are study by different scientists, each has their own time scale. Paleontologist, archaeologist and historian contribute to the study of evolution. To put these fields into a single time scale is a difficult task. Only logarithmic scale can cover periods of billion years in the same scale as thousand years. The natural logarithm and the base-ten logarithm proved to be inadequate.

Modern man appeared 30,000 years ago. Bronze age began 5,000 years ago. So age of modern man is six-fold bronze age. Homo sapiens appeared 150,000 to 200,000 years ago. This is six-fold the age of modern man. Homo erectus came to earth 1.2 to 1.5 millions years ago. This is again six-fold the age of Homo sapiens. So our time scale should be 6 fold. To complete a circle of the precession of the equinoxes takes 25,800 years. This is about 72 times 360, which is approximately the number of days in a year. So let us begin with 25,920 which is 72 x 360, and multiply or divide the time with 6 and we get the time scale in Table 2.

How this comes about we do not know for sure.

George Lemaitre of Belgium and George Gamorv of the United States put forward the idea that about 20,000 million years ago all the matter in the universe enough, they estimated, to make up 100,000 million galaxies, was all concentrated in one small mass called the "primeval atom"; this would have been of incredible density. This primeval atom exploded for some reason, sending its matter out in all direction, and as the expansion slowed down, the galaxies formed.

Something then upset the balance and the universe started expanding again, and this is the state in which the universe is now.

Some quasars was found to be over 7,000 million light year away. This means they must be over 7,000 million years old.

The oldest rock on earth is 4,500 million years. The age of the earth may be somewhat older.

In the first period every things were on the process of decay according to the second law of thermodynamics. When the law of life took hold, things began to progress instead of decay. Scientists believed that biochemical process began around 3,000,000,000 years ago. Roughly two and one billion year before present (BP.) fossils consist of single cells and simple aggregations of cells. They resemble bacteria and blue-green algae, confirming the view that these are the most primitive fully developed living organisms.

From sometime around one billion BP. onward there was considerable development of algal reefs, limestone deposits formed by multicellular masses of seaweeds. These plants produce motile unicellular gametes similar in form (isogametes) or different (heterogametes), which fused to form offspring. This was the beginning of male and female forms of living things. When this living thing was asexual it cannot be regarded as male nor female.

Sexual reproduction began in the third period of evolution.

Sponges, corals and snails began to leave trace in fossils 600 million years BP., land plants and animals 405 million years BP. True fish and amphibian arose 504 million years BP. Reptile began to roam the earth 345 million BP. Snake and crocodile ancestors appeared 280 million years BP.

The bird and mammal appear in the Jurassic, some 180 million years BP. Mammals were doubtfully reported to appear in the latest Triassic. They are both warm-blooded. The most important common characteristic is that the offspring depend on their parents for a considerable period after birth. Mammals feed their young with milks, birds with worms. They protect their young at the cost of their lives.

The flowering plant or angiospermae were definitely present in the Cretaceous (135 million years BP.) and probably in the Jurassic. These plants bear fruits or grains, some only seeds. The colorful flowers of these plants decorate the earth ever since.

A group of higher primates, infraorder Catarrhini, evolved in Africa apparently during the Oligocene (35 million years BP.). This constitutes old world monkeys and apes including man.

The best-studied members of the old world monkeys are the baboons and macaques. Baboons live in troops, with a small number of adult males comprise a "central hierarchy" within which animals may form a more or less rigid dominance hierarchy. The dominant status is maintained by aggressive expression, biting and threat. This is the agonic mode of dominance.

One area in which all monkeys are more advanced than prosimians is in the matter of infant care. A new-born baboon is more or less dependent upon its mother for the first 2 years of life, and ties between mother and offspring may last for the rest of their lives.

These ties exert a profound influence on the course of a monkey's life. For example, in the case of female offspring, the eventual dominance status of a daughter is closely tied to that of her mother.

Sons are less influenced by their mother's status, because as adolescents they tend to associate far more with other animals, particularly males, than do daughters, who generally remain close to their mothers.

Siblings also tend to maintain close ties.

Thus the primate social group consists essentially of matrifocal family groups, held together over long periods of time by the equivalent of kinship ties. The troop is centered around adult females; adult males, important for protection and reproductive purposes, are nevertheless frequently transients.

Sade (1968) and the Japanese workers have noted that male offspring almost never mate with their mothers; that is, there are biologically determined incest prohibitions. The occasional mating that occur do so only when sons become dominant to their mothers. However, this cannot be the only factor involved, since mating occur very infrequently even when sons do become dominant, and males often mates with other more dominant females. Apparently, certain aspects of the mother-son relationship produce psychological changes that actively inhibit mating.

Chimpanzees, an ape, also live in troops of around forty and fifty. The troop splits into subgroups that consist of mothers and offspring, adult males and females, and all males. Chimpanzees are noisy animals, quite often subgroups remain in contact by means of vocalizations, giving information about spacing, food and predators.

Chimpanzees mature slowly, an infant remaining in close contact with its mother for at least 4 years. Kinship ties are strong, and female relatives in particular tend to stay together over long periods.

It has been suggested that sexual relationship between mothers and sons do not occur and are avoided by the males leaving the group into which they were born and joining another one. Adult males seem able to recognize their mothers even when they have been separated for some times; reunions are accompanied by highly excited greeting and display behavior. They are the most accomplished users of tools among the nonhuman primates. Sticks and stones are used in displays and are thrown when an animal is standing or charging bipedally.

Twigs are used for body scratching and leaves for wiping off mud. Cooperation in fighting a stuffed leopard has been reported. A high place in the ranking order is attained by an outstanding ability to command the attention of one's fellows. They do it by "display". They bouncing around and shake the branches. They find interesting objects, and their companions cluster around to see what they've got and what they've going to do with it. This is hedonic mode.

Anthropologists now believe that ape family tree goes back to a primate called Dryopithecus a true ape that appeared some 20 million years ago. Much later by 14 millions years ago the Dryopithecus line had split into three branches. One branch evolved into the ancestors of today's great apes- the gorillas, chimpanzees and orangutans, which are man's closest living cousin. Another branch gave rise to Ramapithecus which most anthropologists believe was a distant ancestor of man.

In a deposit 2 million years old, the Leakeys discovered pebbles chipped to form sharp-edged implements- evidence that even so far back, man's ancestors knew how to make tools. They found a 1.8 million-year-old skull and name it Homo habilis (handy man), because they believed him to be the manufacturer of the tools in vincinity. Fossil evidence shows the split that produce the first human must have occurred longer ago than 3.5 million years the age of the earliest know Homo fossils, which were found in 1975 by Mary Leakey (Leakey, E.R, Time Nov 7, 1977)

The cause of the changes in climate that lead to the emergence of man can be traced to plate tectonics, the movement of the great crustal plates that ride on the earth's semi-molten mantle and provide its solid outer shell. Some 45 million to 50 million years ago, the plate that carries the Indian subcontinent was pushing up into the underbelly of Asia, slowly thrusting up the massive mountain range now called the Himalayas. This new barrier to global wind circulation helped change weather patterns, altering average temperatures around the world. By about 14 million years ago, climates that had been tropical had turned largely temperate, jungles had thinned out, and fruits and nuts normally available year round began to appear only seasonally.

The changing food supply offered new opportunities for feeding outside the forest. Some of the forest-dwelling apes began venturing into the savana, or grasslands, in search of food such as roots, seeds and finally the meat of other animals.

The creature most likely to have resulted from this transition, anthropologists believe, was Ramapithecus. Anthropologists theorize that once out of the forest, Ramapithecus began to evolve rapidly.

The process of natural selection favored those of his genus who could stand up; an erect position enabled them to see over the tall grass to spot and hunt their prey- and to see and escape the carnivores that preyed on them. Thus they were able to survive longer and produce more offspring, who shared their physical characteristics. After many generations of selection, the savana-dwellers had evolved into upright-standing animals distinctly different from the forest-dwelling relatives they had left behind.

Though scientists have found practically no telltale fossils from the crucial period between 8 million and 5 million years ago, anthropologists speculate that sometime toward the end of this period the hominid line split into the species Australopithecus robutus and africanus. There was also a third species, which some anthropologists believe branched off at the same time, and others think evolved later from A. africanus. Whatever the case, it is generally agreed that the third species was not an Australopithecus but the first creature that could rightfully be called Homo; a man.

Choukoutien was apparently the site of fairly continuous hominid occupation for some time during the middle Pleistocene. The exact date of the deposits is unknown, but they are younger than 2,000,000 years old, perhaps between 800,000 and 1/2 million years old. Bigger game is well represented, particularly the remains of two species of deer. A number of hearths have been discovered, so Homo erectus (Peking man) had invented the use of fire by this time, at least in more northerly latitudes.

That he was not exclusively carnivorous is shown by the abundance of hack berry seeds recovered (Coon, 1962). When he was particularly hungry he was apparently not averse to a little cannibalism. He was, therefore, still somewhat short on the social graces.

In the earliest layers at Olduvai (about 2 million years old) there are remains of early Pleistocene animals such as birds, monkeys, zebras, antelopes, early elephants and many carnivores.

Most of the species represented are now extinct, and the fauna is called by zoologist, a Villafranchia fauna, typical of those which existed in Pliocene-Pleistocene times before the cold phases of the most recent Ice Age began 2 million years ago.

Oval huts, ranging from 26 to 49 feet in length and from 13 to 20 feet in width, were built at Terra Amata by visiting hunters (300,000 years).

A reconstruction shows that the hut walls were made of stakes, about three inches in diameter, set as a palisade in the sand and braced on the outside by a ring of stones. Some larger posts were set up along the huts long axes, but how these and the walls were joined to make roofs is unknown. The hut hearths were protected from drafts by a small pebble windscreen.

The earliest fossils that can be classified as Homo sapiens are those from Swancombe in England and Steinheim in Germany. The former consists of the parietal and occipital bones only, the latter of a skull without a mandible. But these is enough here to demonstrate the presence (at 52 ° latitude) of a hominid far more like modern man than Homo erectus, yet still quite distinct from ourselves. The date of these skulls, which come from the Mindel-Riss interglacial period, is still uncertain, but they are unlikely to be more than 200,000 years BP. and may be as little as 150,000 years BP. (Bernard Campbell). Reindeer and bison bone are found.

By the third interglacial period (Riss-Wurm), which ended about 70,000 BC. the Eurasian cultures of the Lower or Early Paleolithic gave rise to the assemblage of more specialized flake tools termed Mousterian. This is the culture of Neanderthal man, who dominated the Middle Paleolithic era and gained his food by simple hunting technique which included the spear.

In the Grotte des Enfants at Grimaldi an old woman and a young man were buried in Aurignasian times. They were adorned with a sort of crown and bracelets of nassa shells, and their legs were sharply bent back in the manner of Peruvian mummies.

This double interment is sometimes advanced as evidence of a ritual practice - the sacrifice of a living being on the tomb of the dead - a practice which is believed to be found again in the Neolithic period, and which in some countries persisted until recent times.

Homo sapiens neanderthalensis disappeared from the scene at about the time of the greatest expansion of the Weichselian Scandinavian ice-sheet (40,000 BP.). Where he went to is know only by his gods.

Now the stage was clear for Homo sapiens sapiens, modern man. He had a large brain, and he was apparently more adaptable and socially organized than any of his predecessors. He appeared about 40,000 years ago, during the middle Weichselian interglacial, and he rapidly advanced into the most remote corners of the world. During the middle part of the Weichselian he appeared in South Africa, Borneo and Europe, and by 20,000 years ago he was in Australia.

By about 13,000 years ago he was in North America, traversing from Alaska to Patagonia in the space of less than 2,000 years.

30,000 BP. Modern Homo sapiens sapiens entirely replaced earlier man-like forms, weapons and tools of flint and bone; existence of so-called Venuses, female carved stone figures with exaggerated sexual features, suggests fertility symbols in use and magical ceremonies observed. Cave paintings of great beauty (Late Palaeolithic); earliest period of sculpting of animals (Solutrean). Bones used to make musical notes.

20,000 BP. Ice-sheets beginning to retreat from Northern Europe; skins used for clothing; cave dwelling.

15,000 BP. Formal spoken language may have developed in Azilian culture in France. A cave painting at Teruel show Stone-age man armed with bows and arrows preparing for battle or the hunt.

The earliest cultural remains in North America belong to the so-called Older Llano culture. The typical artifact of these early Americans is called a "Clovis" projectile point, skillfully worked and delicately shaped (12,500 to 11,000 years BP.). So bow and arrows were invented in the ninth period of evolution.

8000 BC. Agriculture began. Walled town in Jericho.

Earliest traced of Negroid races developing (in Africa).

6000 BC. Flint sickles of this period indicate the cultivation of crops.

5000 BC. Sea divides Britain from the rest of Europe.

Spearheads of copper and bronze from the royal cemetery at Ur date back to the third millenium BC. Early axes and daggers were sometimes made of copper which the Egyptians also used for spears at least 3,000 years before Christ. Another metal used effectively in similar weapons was iron, which was probably first smelted in Asia Minor in about 3000 BC.

The Assyrians made good use of iron-tipped weapons when they ousted the Sumerians from the area between the Tigris and the Euphratis rivers. The Hittites, who swept through Asia Minor in the middle of the second millenium BC., also use iron weapons with marked success.

Heavy wooden chariots and the first recorded army were seen in the Sumerian Standard of Ur, 2750 BC. By about 2500 BC. considerable refinements had taken place in the chariot design. The first recorded battle in which the clever use of chariots won the day was Ramses II's victory over the Hittite about 1290 BC. at Kadesh, in Syria. The light Egyptian vehicle - so light that it is difficult to see how they could have survived tough usage over rough ground - armed with long-range bows, proved decisive against the heavier Hittite chariots, which were only armed with short-range spears.

With the appearance of fortified cities and organized armies in Asia Minor, siege machines became increasingly important (1100 BC.) The most formidable siege machine that the Assyrians developed was the mobile battering ram, which was often combined, within the same machine, with a double assault tower.

It was the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse who may well first have discovered and employed catapult artillery. This was in about 400 BC. Though used to excellent purpose throughout his campaigns, the catapult was not fully developed until Philip of Macedon, recognized its potential as a military machine more than 60 years later. The powerful Trebuchet was used in wars all over Europe and Asia Minor for over 1500 years.

The pyramids were build between 2800 BC. and 2650 BC. in the Old Kingdom of Egypt. Erection of Zigurat (holy mountain) at Ur began around 2100 BC.

The invention of gunpowder has been credited to the Chinese. There is no certainty of this. Experiments were made at an early date with oil, pitch and sulfur, but results were variable and often unstable. The Arabs may also have known about gunpowder in the early 13^th century AD. But the first convincing report of its manufacture was by the Franciscan Friar, Roger Bacon, in the middle of the 13^th Century (c. 1249). In a cyphered report, in Epistolae de Secretis Operibus Artus et Naturae et de Nullitate Magiae, Bacon gave the formula for the correct mixture of salt peter, charcoal and sulfur; "Sed tamen salis petre luru vopo VIR CAN UTRIET sulphuris." By rearranging the letters the formular was revealed; "Sed tamen salis petre recipe VII partes, V novelle coruli, V et sulphuris", which means,

"To seven parts of salt peter add five parts of charcoal and five parts of sulfur."

The first positive record of a gun is not until at least 60 years after Bacon's gunpowder formula. The first was in Arabic in 1304. In 1326 permission was granted by the city council of Florence for a delivery of cannon balls and "canones de metallo".

The first known illustration of a gun occurs in the same year. This is an illuminated manuscript written by Walter de Milemete in honor of King Edward III of England. In the illustration a knight has just put a red hot iron to the torch hole of a pot-bellied, vase-shaped cannon from whose mouth an arrow is being fired. This kind of cannon, because of its shape, was called a "pot-de-fer".

A year later there is evidence that Edward used guns in his first Scottish campaign; the Scots were using them in sieges soon afterward. In 1346, we know that Edward used a small number of cannon in his victory over the French at the Battle of Crecy. The terrible noise of the cannon was feared as much as the destructive power of the cannon balls.

Guns and cannons soon replace all other weapons which turn into sports or antiques. With a spear one can kill two. With bow and arrows and swords one can kill a family. With a machine gun one can kill the whole village.

As the 19^th century came to a close the discovery was made that the element uranium spontaneously emits radiation resembling X-rays. The French physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel made this observation somewhat accidentally in 1896 while studying the behavior of fluorescent substances.

In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed the theory of relativity and described the basic mass-energy relation E (energy released) = m (loss of mass) x c² (velocity of light²), or E = mc².

On August 6, 1945 an explosion at Hiroshima wiped out 160,000 lives from the face of the earth, men or women, young or old. This heralded the coming of atomic age, the last age of mankind. On November 1, 1952 an H-bomb exploded at Eniwetok Atoll to prove the killing ability of man. One man can wipe out a town (10 miles radius) or ten million people at a time.

How long can man survive on this planet?