http://www.collembola.org/taxa/collembo.htm
-
Last updated on
2009.03.31
by Frans Janssens
Peter F. Bellinger (
),
Department of Biology, California State University, Northridge, CA 91330, USA
Kenneth A. Christiansen,
Department of Biology, Grinnell College, PO Box V3, Grinnell, IA 50112-0806, USA
Frans Janssens,
Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, B-2020, Belgium
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Fig.1. Collembola habitus
(photographs 2000-2004 © Hopkin, S. (1);
2002 © Baquero, E. & Jordana, R. (2);
2004,2007 © Henderickx, H. (4);
2003 © Pettersson, B. (5);
2003 © Schoenherr, J. (6);
2004 © Baquero, E. (7);
2004 © Gielen, K. (8);
2004 © Vuijlsteke, M. (9);
2005 © Domene, X. (10);
2005 © Cheung, D. & Schmidt, J. (11);
2005 © Hall, K. (12);
2006-2007 © Stevens, M. (13);
2006 © Maddison, D.R. (14);
2008 © Ng, M. (15);
2008 © Baas, A.H. (16).
)
Citation suggested:
Bellinger, P.F., Christiansen, K.A. & Janssens, F. 1996-2009.
Checklist of the Collembola of the World. http://www.collembola.org
Introduction
Collembola are
small
([min. 0.12] 1-5 [max. 17] mm),
entognathous
(mouthparts located within a 'gnathal pouch'),
wingless hexapods with antennae always present.
Most but not all Collembola may be recognised by a
posterior ventral forked abdominal appendage, the furca.
The presence of antennae
and absence of cerci distinguishes them from the other
entognathous hexapods, the
Protura
(with antennae and cerci absent) and the
Diplura
(with antennae and cerci or pincers present).
There are ca 7900 described species worldwide.
Collembolan fossils from the Devonian
(ca 400 million years ago)
are among the oldest known records of terrestrial animals.
These organisms
are virtually ubiquitous in terrestrial systems, ancient and thus,
one of the more successful arthropod lineages.
Etymology:
Lubbock (1870) proposed for the division of the Thysanura comprised
in the Linnaean genus Podura
the term Collembola, "as indicating the existence of a
projection or mammalia enabling the creature to attach or glue itself to the
body on which it stands" (Lubbock, 1873:36)
(from colla (Latin), from kolla (Greek): glue;
from embolon (Greek): that what has been thrown into something,
e.g. a wedge, a ram, a plug;
from emballein (Greek): to throw into, to insert).
This ventral projection, the ventral tube or collophore, plays an extremely
important role in the fluid and electrolyte balance.
The eversible vesicles of the ventral tube
may also be used as a source of 'grooming' fluid
and for adhering to smooth surfaces (after Hopkin, 1997:48-49).
In Anurida, that do not have a furca,
the eversible vesicles of the ventral tube may adhere to the surface waterfilm on which they can walk and deform it in such a way that
it is springloaded; when the waterfilm is released the animal is launched upwards into the air
(Bush & Hu, 2006:351).
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External anatomy and morphology:
The body of Collembola basically comprises three tagmata, a
head capsule, a
thorax with three segments, and an
abdomen with five segments and a terminal
periproct.
Thoracic and abdominal segments may be indistinct and may give the body a more
globular appearance.
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Fig.2. Schematic diagram of the poduromorph body structure
(lateral view).
Modified after Potapov, M. in Babenko, A. (1988).
The head bears two
antennae, two optional
postantennal organs, two optional
composed eyes and the
mouthparts.
The antennae principally consist of four articulations.
Antennal articulations may be subdivided or annulated.
Each composed eye consists of maximum eight ommatidia.
The mouthparts comprise the labrum, a pair of mandibulae, a pair of maxillae,
the hypopharynx and the bipartite labium.
The frontal labrum, the ventral labium and two lateral oral folds
enclose the other mouthparts in the buccal cavity (entognathy).
Each thoracic segment bears ventrally a pair of
walking limbs.
Each limb is made up of an
epicoxa,
subcoxa,
coxa,
trochanter,
femur,
tibia and
footcomplex,
the latter comprising the distal part of the tibia having a large outer lamellate unguis
and bearing a small inner unguicular tubercle with optional unguiculus or empodium
(Janssens, 1999-2006).
The anterior abdominal segment bears a
ventral tube having two eversible vesicles.
The third abdominal segment ventrally bears the
retinaculum.
The fourth abdominal segment ventrally bears the
furca.
The furca comprises the basal
manubrium, bearing two arms, each of them comprising a
dens and a
mucro.
The
genital orifice opens at the ventral side of the fifth abdominal segment.
The
anus opens terminally at the posterior abdominal
periproct.
The
linea ventralis
is a linear cuticular ventral groove that runs between the
base of the labium and the collophore (Hopkin, 1997:60).
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Fig.2a. Composed eye (left)
Dicyrtomina saundersi
2007 © Krebs, C.
Some discussion on morphological issues:
Tagmatisation in arthropodans is not monophyletic.
Assuming a primitive marine benthic crustacean discovering the potentials of
terrestrial habitats, tagmatisation is almost a natural process, since its main
effect is the localisation and specialisation of the locomotory system.
Improving the locomotory system is imperative for successfully invading
terrestrial habitats. On the other hand, cephalisation is just as
important. Both processes led to tripartite body division in arthropods
living in terrestrial habitats. In marine or freshwater habitats,
tripartite tagmatisation has no special advantadge.
The collembolan composed eye, with maximum 8 single eyes designated
as A to H (fig.2a), is derived from the compound eye of early crustaceans (Paulus, 1972).
Entognathy in Hexapoda s.l. is not
monophyletic. The collembolan entognathy might be developed
as an adaptation to terrestrial habitats.
Entognathy in crustaceans is rare. There are
some indications of an entognathic tendence in terrestrial
Amphipoda. This is interesting, because it might show that entognathy
is an evolutionary advantadge during the process of invading
terrestrial systems. Amphipoda are a more recent type of crustaceans:
oldest fossils are from the Eocene. So, they might be still in the
phase where early collembolan ancestors were in the preDevonian times.
The postantennal organs are the remnants of the 2nd pair of antennae
of its ancestral crustacean. The postantennal organs might be the specialised
sensory organ of the original 2nd antennal apex that remained while the
2nd antenna shaft itself reduced (Lawrence, 1999).
To be completed.
Internal anatomy: to be completed.
Biology:
Development is direct with adults differing from juveniles in proportion,
size, pigment (usually juveniles are paler), and the absence of a genital
opening (Christiansen in Dindal, 1990:967).
In some genera a diapause occurs which may be associated with regressive
modification of mouthparts and digestive system and even striking external
modification of cuticle and the development of spines (ecomorphosis)
(Christiansen in Dindal, 1990:967-968).
Collembola moult throughout life with instars ranging from four to more
than 50 (Christiansen in Dindal, 1990:968).
Collembola are polyphagous, in general;
some species are saprophagous (decomposed plants), coprophagous (excrements),
necrophagous (cadavers), mycetophagous (fungi),
bacteriophagous (soil micro-organisms)
(Thibaud, 1970:103) or
pollinophagous (pollen).
Some are predacious.
In Sinella coeca and Sinella pouadensis, the adults eat their
own eggs, even when there is enough food supply
(Thibaud, 1970:132).
Their predators are represented by species of
Chilopoda,
Opilionidae, Japygidae,
Acari,
Aranea
(e.g.
Salticidae
such as
Hentzia palmarum
or
Gen. spec. from the UK
or
Gen. spec. from the USA,
and
Linyphiidae),
Pseudoscorpiones
(after Thibaud, 1970:105),
Hemiptera,
Coleoptera,
Dolichopodidae (
from the UK,
from Sweden,
from the USA),
Hybotidae,
and
Formicidae.
Collembola have separate sexes and indirect sperm transfer (Hopkin 1997:134).
Spermatophores are deposited
by the males on the substrate (Christiansen in Dindal, 1990:968), or
placed directly on the female genital opening (Hopkin 1997:134).
A variety of mechanisms have evolved to ensure successful 'capture' of this
spermatophore by the female (Christiansen in Dindal, 1990:968; Hopkin 1997:134).
Physiology: to be completed.
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Fig.3b. Podura aquatica and Sminthurides aquaticus, typically found on the surface of stagnant freshwaters. 2007.04.01 © Cornwall, N.J.
Ecology: Collembola
are soil and litter dwelling, preferring wet or damp surroundings.
Collembolans inhabit soil and leaf litter, although
some species move actively over the surfaces of bark and flowers in
daylight.
They may be found in moss, under stones, in caves, in ant and
termite nests but also in the intertidal zone on the coast, on
the surfaces of lakes and ponds or snow fields of gletjers.
Collembolans are major
components of terrestrial ecosystems (and particularly significant
members of the soil communities), constituting a significant
proportion of the animal biomass and are thus frequently and easily
found. In forest soils they can reach densities of 200 to 1800 individuals per
dm3, densities only surpassed by the acarian
soil population (Handschin, 1955).
Abiotic factors:
In Hypogastruridae, the development is impacted as follows:
1. the lethal temperatures are -4°C and 28°C,
2. the optimum temperature range is 9°C to 12°C,
3. the hygrometric optimum is 98-100% relative humidity;
4. the lethal hygrometric minimun is 93% relative humidity
(Thibaud, 1970:161-173).
Paleontology: to be completed.
Anthropological perspective:
Collembola can be pests principally by virtue of their presence
in the home.
But in many cases, the Collembola are just annoying 'guests',
a nuisance, rather than infestations causing a disease.
The infestations are classified as
domestic infestations (Collembola found in houses),
incidental human infestations (infestations through pot plants
in the bedroom, infestations by malfunctioning
pooter),
human infestations not associated with dermatitis and
human infestations associated with dermatitis.
In addition, one can also consider the
delusional infestations (psychotic infestations) and the
infestations due to 'sample contamination' (clinical errors, laboratory errors).
Phylogeny:
Handlirsch (1908) considers Collembola as a more or less
recent group of insects with an extreme specialisation. He considers
them as forms with a retrograde development reaching maturity while in
a larval state. (cited from Handschin, 1955:41,45).
Based on the discovery of the ca 400 million years old Devonian
fossil collembolan Rhyniella praecursor, and the
striking resemblance it shows with extant collembolan species, Tillyard (1928)
concludes that Collembola are primary, ancestral, and archaic
terrestrial arthropodans (cited from Handschin, 1955:41,49).
Gullan & Cranston (1994:192-194) consider Collembola
as the sistergroup of Insecta + Diplura,
grouped with Protura into Hexapoda.
Janssens & Lawrence (2002-2007)
propose that Collembola are highly specialised terrestrial Crustacea,
that have reached their evolutionary climax already in the Devonian,
when they dominated most terrestrial habitats.
The terrestrial competition between Collembola and early Insecta
might have triggered the latter to develop wings
to become 'masters in the sky' in the Carboniferous.
A phylogeny, applying the principle of total evidence,
using molecular and morphological characters,
strongly supports the monophyly of
Pancrustacea
(= Crustacea & Hexapoda)
(Giribet, Edgecombe & Wheeler, 2001:160).
Molecular phylogeny of the arthropods provide support
for a monophyletic Hexapoda/Branchiopoda clade
(Regier & Shultz, 1997:902,911).
Based on mitochondrial data, Lavrov et al. (2004) recover an (Insecta,
(Branchiopoda, Malacostraca)) clade and a (Collembola,
Maxillopoda) clade, which is confirmed by Cook et al. (2005)
(Cook, Yue & Akam, 2005:1301).
Physiological data show that Collembola evolved directly from marine
ancestors: haemolymph with high osmotic pressures and mainly composed of
inorganic salts (Little, 1983, 1990 cited from D'Haese, 2003:583).
So early crustaceans must have been adapted from marine habitats
in the Cambrium to terrestrial soil habitats in the Devonian.
Possibly, Collembola are derived from a benthic marine
maxillopod that explored the potentials of terrestrial soil habitats.
Methods: to be completed.
Systematics:
The taxonomic hierarchy is mainly based on Bretfeld (1994, 1999),
D'Haese (2002:1148), and Deharveng (2004:427).
The systematics of the higher taxa that is presented here
is in line with some of the more 'recent' opinions.
Collembola are not considered as being Insecta
but as a taxonomic group with the same rank (class).
Note that also Protura and Diplura are currently classified as separate classes.
In an attempt to organise a combination in kind of harmony between
two by definition incompatible classification schools -
the Linnean school that uses a static, hierarchical system
with emphasis on the ranking of taxa
and the cladistic school that uses a dynamic, evolutionary system
with emphasis on the relationship between the taxa
-
the classification used here tries to map the more recent cladistic system
onto the conventional Linnean classification and ranking system.
Note that it will never be possible to combine both systems in
a 100% compatible way. In other words: different opinions and thus
classifications will continue to popup in the papers...
Hexapoda Blainville, 1816.
The finding of the reciprocal paraphyly of
Hexapoda and Crustacea suggests an
evolutionary scenario in which the acquisition of the hexapod condition may
have occurred several times independently in lineages descending from different
crustacean-like ancestors, possibly as a consequence of the process of
terrestrialisation
(Carapelli, Liò, Nardi, van der Wath & Frati, 2007).
Although found paraphyletic based on recent molecular studies, Hexapoda is
conveniantly maintained in the current taxonomic hierarchy
untill the disagreements between molecular and morphological analyses have
been resolved.
Apterygota Lang, 1889
(= Archaeognatha, Zygentoma, Diplura, Collembola and Protura)
is considered as being
an artificial assemblage of paraphyletic taxa
(Moen & Ellis, 1984)
and therefore not accepted anymore as a valid formal taxon by the
cladistic school of systematists (Hopkin, 1997:19)
(Bach de Roca, Gaju-Ricart & Compte-Sart, 1999:393).
Ellipura Börner, 1910 (= Collembola and Protura) is not a
monophyletic group (Bach de Roca, Gaju-Ricart & Compte-Sart, 1999:393) and
therefore not accepted in this classification.
- Superregnum Eucarya Woese, Kandler & Wheelis, 1990
- Regnum Animalia Linnæus, 1758
- Subregnum Eumetazoa Butschli, 1910
- Superphylum Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo AMA, Turbeville JM, Lindford LS, Rivera MC, Garey JR, Raff RA & Lake JA, 1997
- Phylum Arthropoda Latreille, 1829
- Subphylum Pancrustacea Zrzavy & Stys, 1997
- Superclassis Hexapoda Blainville, 1816
- Classis Collembola Lubbock, 1870
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Ceratophysella meets Dicyrtomina
from the UK
2008.01.05 © Valentine., B
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Isotomurus palustris and Orchesella villosa
from the UK
2008.01.12 © Tonsbeek, M.
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Aggregation of Ceratophysella,
Hypogastrura and Proisotoma from the USA
2008.03.09 © Boeddeker, M.
- Ordo Poduromorpha Börner, 1913, sensu D'Haese CA, 2002:1148
- Superfamilia Neanuroidea Massoud Z, 1967:58, sensu D'Haese CA, 2002:1148
- Familia Neanuridae Börner, 1901, sensu Deharveng L, 2004:424
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Neanuridae from New Zealand
2006 © Minor, M., & Robertson, A.
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Neanuridae from Croatia
2008.05.25 © Keresztes, G.
- Subfamilia Caputanurininae Lee, 1983
- Subfamilia Frieseinae Massoud, 1967
- Subfamilia Morulininae Börner, 1906
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Morulina delicata from the USA
2006 © Bernard, E.C.
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Morulina multatuberculata from the USA
With large morula-like post antennal organ
2009.03.03 © Roffler, D.
- Subfamilia Neanurinae Börner C, 1901:33, sensu Cassagnau, 1989
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Australonura from New Zealand
2006 © Minor, M. & Robertson, A.
Det. Deharveng, L., 2008.12.22
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Neanurinae from Singapore
2007 © Anker, A.
- Subfamilia Pseudachorutinae Börner, 1906
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Anurida granaria from Sweden
2006 © Hall, K.
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Pseudachorutinae from Singapore
On cerianthid in tidal zone
2008.07.06 © Ng, M.
- Subfamilia Uchidanurinae Salmon, 1964
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Holacanthella paucispinosa from New Zealand
2006 © Stevens, M.
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Acanthanura sp. from Tasmania
2007 © Henderickx, H.
- Familia Brachystomellidae Stach, 1949
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Brachystomella parvula
After Potapov, M. in Babenko, A., 1988.
- Familia Odontellidae Massoud, 1967
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Habitus Odontellidae
2006 © Bernard, E.
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Habitus Odontellidae
Odontella sp. from the USA
2006 © Bernard, E.
- Superfamilia Poduroidea sensu Palacios-Vargas, 1994:409
- Familia Poduridae Latreille, 1804, i.s.
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Podura aquatica from Belgium
2001 © Hopkin, S.P.
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Podura aquatica from Belgium
2006.03.26 © De Wilde, A.
- Superfamilia Hypogastruroidea Salmon JT, 1964:103, sensu Deharveng L, 2004:427
- Familia Hypogastruridae Börner, 1906
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Hypogastrura sp. from the USA
2009.02.26 © Cowen, R.
- Familia Pachytullbergiidae Stach, 1954
- Familia Paleotullbergiidae Deharveng L, 2004:427
- Superfamilia Gulgastruroidea
- Familia Gulgastruridae Lee B-H & Thibaud J-M, 1998:453
- Superfamilia Onychiuroidea sensu D'Haese CA, 2002:1148,1149
- Familia Onychiuridae Lubbock, 1867
- Subfamilia Onychiurinae Börner, 1901
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Onychiurinae from China
2008.07.17 © NCode, A.
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Onychiurinae from Canada
2009.01.09 © Weeta, W.
- Subfamilia Tetrodontophorinae Stach, 1954
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Tetrodontophora bielanensis from Germany
2004 © Hopkin, S.P.
- Subfamilia Lophognathellinae Stach, 1954
- Familia Tullbergiidae Bagnall RS, 1935:238
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Tullbergia sp. from Antarctica
2003 © Stevens, M.
Superfamilia Isotogastruroidea
- Familia Isotogastruridae Thibaud J-M & Najt J, 1992, i.s.
Ordo Entomobryomorpha Börner, 1913, sensu Soto-Adames FN et al., 2008:501
- Superfamilia Tomoceroidea Szeptycki A, 1979:112
- Familia Oncopoduridae Carl J & Lebedinsky J, 1905:565
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Oncopodura sp. nov. from Belgium
2005 © Janssens, F.
- Familia Tomoceridae Schäffer, 1896
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Pogonognathellus sp. from the UK
Body covered with iridescent scales
2007.12.19 © Campbell, A.
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Tomocerus minor from the UK
3rd abdominal segment superequal to 4th
2008.09.24 © Robertson, A.
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Tomocerinae from Japan
2005.09.07 © Keresztes, G.
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Tomocerus sp. from France
Long 3rd antennal segment
2007.02.23 © Ollivier, E.
- Superfamilia Isotomoidea Szeptycki, 1979:112, sensu Soto-Adames FN et al., 2008:504
- Familia Isotomidae Schäffer, 1896
- Subfamilia Anurophorinae Börner C, 1901:42
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Folsomides sp. from Australia
1999 © Walter, D.E.
- Subfamilia Proisotominae Stach, 1947
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Folsomia candida from the UK
2003 © Hopkin, S.P.
- Subfamilia Isotominae Schäffer, 1896
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Isotominae from Belgium
2006 © Vuijlsteke, M.
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Isotoma viridis from the USA
2009.03.10 © Cowen, R.
- Subfamilia Pachyotominae Potapov MB, 2001:18
- Familia Actaletidae Börner, 1902, sensu Soto-Adames FN et al., 2008:506
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Actaletidae from Mexico
2002 © Palacios-Vargas, J.G.
- Familia Protentomobryidae Folsom, 1937, -
Superfamilia Entomobryoidea Womersley, 1934, sensu Soto-Adames FN et al., 2008:502
- Familia Microfalculidae Massoud & Betsch, 1966
- Familia Praentomobryidae Christiansen, KA et Nascimbene, P, 2006:354,-
- Familia Entomobryidae Schäffer, 1896
(head)
- Subfamilia Capbryinae Soto-Adames FN, Barra J-A, Christiansen K & Jordana R, 2008:508
- Subfamilia Orchesellinae Börner C, 1906:162, sensu Szeptycki A, 1979:115
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Orchesella sp. from Estonia
2006.10.06 © Tartes, U.
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Orchesella cincta from the UK
With subdivided 2 basal antennomeres
2008.09.21 © Robertson, A.
- Subfamilia Entomobryinae Schäffer, 1896, sensu Szeptycki A, 1979:115
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Entomobryinae from the UK
Entomobrya nicoleti, E. intermedia, E. multifasciata
2005 © Brocklehurst, K.
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Entomobryinae from the USA
Entomobrya confusa
E. assuta, E. clitellaria
2006 © McClarin, J.
- Subfamilia Lepidocyrtinae Wahlgren E, 1906:67, sensu Szeptycki A, 1979:115
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Lepidocyrtinae from Sweden
2006.03.25 © Hall, K.
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Lepidocyrtinae from the USA
2007.03.17.25 © Murray; T.
- Subfamilia Seirinae Yosii R, 1961, sensu Szeptycki A, 1979:115
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Seira sp. from France
2006 © Alain, M.
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Seira bipunctata from the USA
2006 © Babin, P.
- Subfamilia Willowsiinae Yoshii R & Suhardjono YR, 1989:35, sensu Janssens F, 2008
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Willowsia buski from France
2007.06.09 © Lebeaux, P.
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Willowsia platani from the UK
2007.06.30 © Cornwall, N.J.
Familia Paronellidae Börner, 1913, sensu Soto-Adames FN et al., 2008:507
- Subfamilia Paronellinae Börner, 1913, sensu Soto-Adames FN et al., 2008:507
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Paronellinae from Japan
2005.11.16 © Keresztes, G.
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Paronellinae from China
2008.07.18 © NCode, A.
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Paronellinae from Taiwan
2009.02.04 © Wu, S.
- Subfamilia Cyphoderinae Börner, 1913, sensu Soto-Adames FN et al., 2008:507
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Cyphoderus albinus from the UK
With Myrmica rubra
2007 © Cornwall, N.J.
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Cyphoderus albinus from France
With Pheidole pallidula
2008.03.15 © Lebeaux, P.
Familia Oncobryidae Christiansen, KA et Pike, E, 2002:167,-
Superfamilia Coenaletoidea Soto-Adames FN et al., 2008:506
- Familia Coenaletidae Bellinger PF, 1985:117
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Coenaletes caribaeus
2006 © Palacios-Vargas, J.G.
Ordo Neelipleona Massoud Z, 1971:198
- Familia Neelidae Folsom JW, 1896:391
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Megalothorax sp.
1999 © Walter, D.E.
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Neelus? sp.
2005 © Cheung, D. & Schmidt, J.
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Megalothorax? sp. nov. from the UK
2006 © Brocklehurst, K.
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Neelidae from the UK
2008.04.13 © Kilford., B
Ordo Symphypleona Börner, 1901, sensu Massoud, 1971
- Superfamilia Sminthuridoidea sensu Fjellberg A, 1989:133
- Familia Mackenziellidae Yosii, 1961
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Mackenziella psocoides ♂ from Tenerife
After Fjellberg, A, 1989 Fig.15
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Mackenziella psocoides ♀ from Scandinavia
After Fjellberg, A, 2006 Fig.2
- Familia Sminthurididae Börner, 1906, sensu Betsch J-M & Massoud Z, 1970:199
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Sminthurides aquaticus from Belgium
2000 © Hopkin, S.P.
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Sphaeridia serrata from the USA
2006 © Maddison, D.R.
- Superfamilia Katiannoidea Bretfeld, 1994
- Familia Katiannidae Börner, 1913, sensu Bretfeld G, 1999:13
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Sminthurinus bimaculatus from France
2005 © Losacco, S.
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Sminthurinus elegans from the USA
2006 © McClarin, J.
- Familia Spinothecidae Delamare Deboutteville, 1961, sensu Bretfeld, 1994
- Familia Arrhopalitidae Stach, 1956, sensu Bretfeld G, 1999:13
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Arrhopalites hirtus from the USA
2005 © Cheung, D. & Schmidt, J.
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Arrhopalites sp. from the USA
2006 © Bernard, E.
- Familia Collophoridae Bretfeld G, 1999:13
- Superfamilia Sturmioidea Bretfeld, 1994
- Familia Sturmiidae Bretfeld, 1994
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Sturmius sp. nov. from Panama
2009.03.16 © Palacios-Vargas, J.G.
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Sturmius sp. nov. from Panama
2009.03.16 © Palacios-Vargas, J.G.
- Superfamilia Sminthuroidea Bretfeld, 1994
- Familia Sminthuridae Lubbock, 1862, sensu Deharveng, L, 2004:427
- Subfamilia Sminthurinae Lubbock, 1862, sensu Deharveng, L, 2004:427
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Sminthurinae from Russia
2006 © Macroclub.ru.
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Sminthurus sp. nov. from the USA
2007.04.30 © Cowen, R.
- Subfamilia Sphyrothecinae Betsch J-M, 1980:149
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Neosminthurus clavatus from the USA
2008.01.26 © Gross, J.
- Familia Bourletiellidae Börner, 1912, sensu Bretfeld, 1994
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Bourletiellidae from the USA
Intrageneric ménage á trois
Deuterosminthurus nonfasciatus, ♀ and ♂
Deuterosminthurus bicinctus, ♂
2007.06.04 © Reed, D.
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Bourletiella sp. from New Zealand
2007.12.21 © van de Vyver, L.
- Superfamilia Dicyrtomoidea Bretfeld, 1994
- Familia Dicyrtomidae Börner, 1906, sensu Deharveng, L, 2004:427
 |
Dicyrtomina cf. ornata from the USA
Abdominal tubular wax excretions
2008.11.15 © Justis, S.
- Subfamilia Ptenothricinae Richards, 1968
- Subfamilia Dicyrtominae Richards, 1968
 |
Dicyrtominae from the USA
2006 © Moorehead, C.
 |
Dicyrtominae from France
2006 © Ollivier, E.
Familia ludens
Familia Fuzzballidae Janssens, 2006
- Genus Pareidolia Janssens, 2008
- Species ramosi Janssens, 2008
 |
Pareidolia ramosi from the USA
2006.02.06 © Ramos, K.
Fig.4. Tentative ordinal phylogenetic relationships
+---------------- Poduromorpha
|
<-pC-+ +----------- Tomoceroidea
+-Nc-+
| +-- Entomobryomorpha s.s.
| +---+
| | +-- Neelipleona
+-Pe-+
+------ Symphypleona
|
This tentative ordinal tree (Fig. 4) is compiled
from the views of relationships among
orders of Collembola based on phylogenies proposed by Cassagnau (1971),
Massoud (1971, 1976) Moen & Ellis (1984), Bretfeld (1986), Fjellberg (1994),
Soto-Adames (1996), D'Haese (2002, 2003), Park (2002), Deharveng (2004),
and Xiong & al. (2008).
Traditionally, the Collembola have been divided into five groups
(Poduromorpha, Metaxypleona, Neelipleona, Entomobryomorpha, and Symphypleona)
which different authors have considered to represent orders, sections or every
category in between these two.
D'Haese (2002) and Xiong & al. (2008) have concluded that
Entomobryomorpha is paraphyletic and D'Haese (2002:1148) proposed
Tomoceromorpha (= Tomoceroidea) as a new basic group of Collembola.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Louis Deharveng, Steve Hopkin and Toby Barton for their
constructive comments.
References
