Bookworkers in the Flanders during the XVth-XVIth century

The first book printed with separate letters dates from 1450 and this discovery has been attributed to Gütenberg. The books printed before 1500, are called 'incunabulae or cradle books'. Gütenberg rapidly switched from wooden to casted metal letters. This enabled him to produce books on a large scale. In the second half of the XVth century, typography appeared in several cities of Flanders, such as : Antwerp, Ghent, Oudenaarde, Leuven, Aalst and Bruges. In the mid of the XVth century, Bruges was the one of the most important distribution and trade centers for North-Europe. It was the most important place for the production of manuscripts and also, later, printing and book trade. Ghent has never been an important center of printers in comparison with Bruges, Antwerp (Christoffel Plantin: born around 1520, first master of the "Gulden Passer", famous workshop) or Aalst (Dirk Martens, born in 1446, trained as printer by Gerardus de Lisa in Venice, Italy. Started a workshop in Aalst in 1473). Louvin got some important printers at the end of the XVth century: R.Loeffs de Driel and H.Nassau.

The first printer officially nominated by the city of Ghent, was Arend de Keysere (Arnoldus cesaris, Arnoul de keysere, born in ?). He was first printing in Oudenaarde where he produced a book, "Hermannus de Petra", in 1480. Then he moved to Ghent where he printed the first book from this city : 'the Treaty of Arras (Atrecht)' in 1483. He died in 1490. During that period binderies where incorporated in the printer's workshop. Therefore, the reputation of the binders has always been dependent of that of the printers. That is the main reason why not too much attention has been paid to the binders in Ghent, although this city got a lot af good binders. Ghent played an important role in the development of blind tooling (panel stamps) on the leather of the books in the low Countries. In the XVth century, an important center of printers and book binders was established at the 'Sint Veerle' square in Ghent, which still today exists in front of the Counts' castle.
Picture: miniature representing Library during the XVth century, Ms. -Raphael de Mercatellis-, f°37v, University of Ghent, Belgium.

Panel stamps in Ghent and Bruges during the XVth-XVIth century

Till the XVIth century it was normal for a printer to act as bookbinder, publisher and print dealer. A great deal of attention was paid to the outward look of the book until the first half of the XVIth century. We all know the very rich decorated bindings from this period. This decoration was done by means of fillets and engraved copper stamps which were (and still are today) first warmed and then pressed into the leather, thereby producing an impression in relief (embossed). Small separate stamps of a few centimeters were used for producing rectangular, round and diamond shapes. Also animals and flowers were produced. Typical for bindings produced in Bruges is the use of: a fly, a fleur-de-lis and a triangular dragon. Large panel stamps of 7 to 10 mm in size, were used. They were pressed into the leader mechanically. These stamps represented images of Saints and allegoric scenes and portraits.

Bookbinders in Ghent during the XVIth century

The widow of Arend de Keysere, Beatrijs van Oroir, moved to Bruges after his death in 1490 and married with a local printer (Hendrik van den Dale). We have to wait till 1513 to see any new printing activity in Ghent. Only two printers are kown: Simon Cock (coming from Antwerp) and Judocis Petrus de Hallis. On the other hand, and because of the lack of local printers, the book trade of foreign books, printed outside Ghent, flourished. From that period we know Johannes Meganc, Johannes Waterloose, Jodocus Horenweghe, Victor van Crombrugghe and Gerard Zweemere. They sold books which where originally printed by Josse Bade (printer in in Paris). Books were used as weapons in the fight between the Catholics and the Protestants. In 1521 the Catholic church put a severe ban on the edition of so called 'heretic' books. During this period there were a lot of printers (about 40) in Ghent. A special license (approbation) was needed to print or deal books. A large number of devotional, educational books were then produced. Also some books dealing with horticulture and agriculture were printed. Literary and scientific books were extremely rare and principally not allowed. Sander Hubert and Jan de Noeuville were condamned (respectively in 1536 and 1541) because of the distribution of "unauthorised" books.

Pieter de Keysere (Caesar Petrus, Pierre Lempereur) is one of Ghents most well known bookworkers (binder and printer). He was the son of Jan de Keysere. He also produced paper. His papermill at the "Keizerpoort" was sold to Maarten Snouckaert in 1544 who continued making paper with Pieters' son, Daneel. Pieter lived at 'St.Veerleplein' and started printing in 1516. He printed with material from Robert de Keysere. Works are present in the collection of rare books of the University of Ghent. Most of the books of Pieter de Keysere were in octavo and quarto format. Pieter de Keysere printed the 'Maiden of Ghent'. He also printed the oldest well-known map of Ghent dating back to 1524 and also Pieter van der Beke's (Petrus Torrentinus) map of Flanders (or Flandria) dating from 1538. Bookbinders in Ghent during the XVth and XVIth century included : Pieter de Keysere, Gillis van de Walle (Aegidius de Vallo), Pierre Caron, Johannes Rikewaert, Johannes Rijckaert (Jan Ryckaert; condamned in 1522 to sale a Dutch translation of the Luther bible), Joris de (van) Gavere, Victor van Crombrugghe, Jan van de Steene, Michel Neetezone and Johannes Guilebert.

Pieter de Keysere and Johannes Rijckaert are considered to belong to the best bookbinders of Ghent (today 84 identified bindings) during the first half of the XVIth century. Robert de Keysere (Robertus Caesar, Robert Empereur, Robertus Gandensis) was born in Ghent in 1470, studied in Paris and received the title of "magister des arts". He got a workshop for printing in Paris and Ghent and printed works of Erasmus. G.Biernat (printer from Bruges) worked in Roberts workshop in Paris.
Picture: page in "Regiment ende Onderwys jeghen die pestilentie" from Lieven Oosterlynck (Austricius), printed by Robert de Keysere, Ghent 1521; representing the Maiden of Ghent (Ganda Virgo) or "Maghet van Gend". Woodblock print.
The names of the bookworkers in Ghent are overshadowed by the name of Christoffel Plantin (1514-1589) in Antwerp. He was born in Saint-Avertin (close to Tours), France. He arrived with his wife Jeanne Rivière in Antwerp in 1549 and was originally a bookbinder. Around 1555 the first book of Plantin was edited.

Bookworkers in Ghent during the XVIIth century

After the religious wars of the XVIth century and the subsequent economic decline, Ghent gradually recovered during the XVIIth century. During the XVIIth century (golden century of the North, Holland) our best printers left the city. The printers in Ghent didn't agree with the increase of the strict control. The result was that books became mediocre in quality but the remaining printers continued their work as did their predecessors, and created a new market for etchers and engravers. Although the number of printers in Ghent increased throughout the XVIIth century, their output was low and was mainly for local distribution. In the XVIIth century there was only one important family of printers in Ghent namely, the family 'de Goesin'. These bindings have a tight back.

The expansion of the linen industry and Lieven Bauwens

Especially under the reign of the Empress Maria Theresia of Austria (1748-1780) Ghent flourished again. That period coincides with the expansion of the linen and cotton industries. The façades in French style, in the center of Ghent, are testimonies of that period. At the end of the reign of Maria Theresia (1765), the widow of Michiel de Goesin printed a very famous Flemish vocabulary. It was printed to teach the people how to properly spell the Flemish language. During the second half of the XVIIIth century, the process of industrialization, which fully developed in Ghent in the XIXth century, started. Around 1800 Lieven Bauwens smuggled the famous 'Mule Jenny'. He set up his mechanical spinning machines in Ghent. The Carthusian monastery was then used as a cotton spinning mill. The rapid growth of the textile industry made Ghent into the 'Manchester of the Continent'. Lieven Bauwens was confirmed as Mayor of the city of Ghent in 1800.

Bookbinding during the XVIIIth century

At the end of the XVIIth century and during the XVIIIth century, the market for bound or sewn books grew and books ceased to be of artistic value. An innovation in book construction came in the middle of the XVIIIth century. The flexible style was almost left for sawn-in cords and hollow backs. Sinking the cords into the backs of the sections and attaching a paper tube to the spine allowed the books to open easily. The most probable reason for this new method was the competition between binderies to acquire trade. Indeed, the sunken cord style lowered production costs. To make books more attractive to the customer, the hollow back with the false bands, appeared. This is a very weak binding and a lot of these books are now available in flea-markets in Ghent (on Friday, Saturday and Sunday morning).

Flemish enlightenment and role of the printers 'De Gimblet' in Ghent

Although in the XVIIIth century bindings in paper and parchment ceased to be of high value, the market for bound books grew fast. At the end of the XVIIIth century people were in search of identity and independence. This was the start of the 'Flemish enlightenment'. At that time the 'intellectual élite' of Ghent became receptive to the ideas of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau and Diderot. They were fascinated by their views on the supremacy of the reason. In 1779 the government granted a well known printer from Ghent, De Gimblets, the right to publish an Flemish written periodical : the 'Vlaamse indicateur ofte Aen-wijzer der Wetenschappen en Vrije-Konsten' or 'The Flemish indicator of the Sciences and Liberal arts' to promote the 'Enlightenment' in the Flanders.

The turning point for Flanders in 1787

The enlightenment led to an increasingly authoritarian attitude of Joseph the IInd which in turn produced inflation, unemployment and inevitably protest. This resulted in violence in November 1789 and finally in the expulsion of the Austrians on January 11th, 1790. The Republic of the Belgian Estates was declared, and Austria went to war with France. Water-colors, etches and paintings from that period show the cruelties exercised in Ghent in 1789. After the Austrians, the French arrived. The several years of French occupation led finally to the Treaty of Paris (May 30th, 1814). The great powers agreed to the foundation of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, of which Belgium was a part. William the Ist, Prince of Orange, was the King. He established the University of Ghent which is located on the Voldersstraat. The first building still exists and is used today to organize congresses and seminars. However, the authorities of The Hague, were just as centralist and authoritarian as the Austrians and the French. The revolution of 1830 and the subsequent independence of Belgium was the result.

The Treaty of Ghent

In 1812, the American Congress declared war on England because of British attacks on her ships. In 1814, the Americans and British used the Carthusian monastery to sign the famous 'Treaty of Ghent'. The signing stopped the Second war of Independence of the United States of America. In 1814 president James Madison sent John Quincy Adams to Europe. This man was very well known for his experience in European affairs. Napoleon left the political arena and was exiled to Elba. John Quincy Adams looked for peace negociation and found Ghent the best venue. In July 1814 the American delegation arrived in Ghent and in 1814, an agreement was achieved. The Indians were bound to the Americans and the treaty also condemned the slave trade. The treaty remains today at Libary of Congress.

The end of the family business at the end of the XIXth century

At the end of the XIXth century the process of rationalism became apparent. In bookbinding, the combination of poor materials and unskilled work made bindings unsatisfactory. This is evident from the innumerable leather bindings from the XIXth century that today require repair. The machine building industry in Ghent was expanded. In 1894, the Carels brothers received an exclusive license to construct diesel motors. Cylinder prints had been made in Ghent since 1853. The population in Ghent increased tremendously and intolerable social injustice as well as poverty were the basis of a social revolution in the XXth century (socialism). The Carels brothers were indirectly responsible for the establishment of a technical school in Ghent around the second world war. The Department of Book printers and Bookbinders was one of the several sections. Book printing and bookbinding, once performed and taught by the same people were now taught separately in schools. Initially, the schools were intended to train students in book printing and binding before they went to the industry. Very soon, the Bookbinders were separated from the printers and were housed in separate buildings which enabled them to evolve on their own.

Bookbinding, social revolution and world wars in the XXth century

In the first half of the XXth century, the lower classes working in the factories lived in backstreets (beluiken in dutch) . In this city of industry and workers, the social movement in Flanders found its roots. The cotton workers were the first to unite and protest against working and living conditions and child labor. The first and largest organized workers' movement in Belgium originated in Ghent (Edward Anseele). From then on more and more women started binding books in annex workshops of printers. It is difficult to compile the history during the years of the wars of 1914-18 and 1940-45 in a few words. This period was completely in contrast with the cosmopolitan view of the XVIIth century and the principles of the 'Flemish enlightenment'. It is told that the quality of fine hand bookbinding after the second world war has been upgraded in Belgium and the Netherlands, by women. This needs another separate story.

Since 1900, new materials such as cloth plastic, synthetic adhesives and blocking foils have made possible the cased book produced by mechanized binding. Acidic paper (produced since the decrease of the use of rags and the introduction of trees for producing paper) and very poor materials have lowered standards.However, this needs another story. Many books produced between 1900 and 1960 will be unusable in the coming 40 years. It is unfortunate that so much fine literature is bound in a transitory fashion.

Bibliography

J.Machiels (1994) De boekdrukkunst te Gent tot 1560. Bijdragen tot de bibliotheekwetenschap, VII. Ed. University of Ghent-Belgium.

J.Van de Wiele (1989) Gentse drukkers en drukkerijen. Ed. Vereniging voor industriele archeologie en textiel.p.3-20

J.Van de Wiele (1989) De Gentse drukkers tussen 1483 en 1899. Ed. Vereniging voor industriele archeologie en textiel.p.21-25

Anne Rouzet (1985) Zestiende eeuwse drukkers in onze provincies. Ed. Koninklijke Bibliotheek Albert I, Brussel

J.-L. Balle, J.Goffin, E.Cockx-Indestege & P.Culot (1994) Wording van een boekband. Ed. Koninklijke Bibliotheek Albert I, Brussel